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lit,  I 


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George  Washington  Flowers 
Memorial  Collection 

DUKE  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARY 


ESTABLISHED  BY  THE 

FAMILY  OF 

COLONEL  FLOWERS 


YORK'S 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 


REVISED  AND  ADAPTED 


TO 


SOUTHERN  SCHOOLS, 


BY 


REV.    BRANTLEY   YORK 


THIBD     EDITION. 


RALEIGH,    N.    C.  : 
BRANSON      &     FARRAR. 

FAYETTEVILLE   STREET, 
1865. 


-^ 


u 


IV( 


PREFACE, 


At  what  age  should  the  study  of  Grammar  be  commenced?  This 
and  similar  questions  have  frequently  been  asked  the  author.  But  no 
age,  perhaps,  can  be  specified ;  some  are  as  well,  or  better  prepared  to 
commence  tlie  study  at  eight  or  nine,  than  others  arc  at  ten  or  eleven, 
or  even,  perhaps,  at  twelve  or  thirteen.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion 
that,  with  a  suitable  text-book  and  instruction,  the  study  should  be 
commenced  as  soon  as  the  pupils  can  read  intelligibly.  This  study 
should  be  commenced  early,  for  the  following  reasons: 

1. — In  order  to  prevent  the  formation  of  erroneous  habits  of  speak- 
ing and  writing ;  for  every  one  must  be  aware  of  the  great  difficulty 
of  breaking  up  erroneous  habits,  once  formed  and  deeply  seated. 

2. — Because  Grammar,  well  understood,  tends  directly  to  flicilitatc 
any  or  all  other  studies.  As  the  knowledge  of  any  su)>ject  must  be 
acquired  through  the  medium  of  language,  whether  written  or  oral ; 
it  follows,  therefore,  of  necessity,  that  the  better  this  medium  is  un- 
derstood, other  things  being  equal,  the  more  thorough  and  rai>id  will 
be  the  progress  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  various  subjects,  em- 
bracing the  educational  course. 

3. — If  this  subject  be  not  mastered  before  the  pupils  enter  College, 
their  knowledge  of  it  is  likely  to  be  defective  through  life,  since  but 
little  attention  is  generally  paid  to  the  study  of  English  Grammar  after 
they  commence  the  Collegiate  course. 

One  of  the  leading  features  in  the  art  of  teaching,  is,  the  adaptation 
of  the  subject  to  the  various  capacities  of  the  pupils.  Much  time  and 
money  have  been  lost,  and,  perhaps,  pupils  injured  by  entering  upon 


IV  PREFACE. 

the  study  of  subjects  which  are  above  and  beyond  the  utmost  reach 
of  their  faculties.  Led  by  this,  and  similar  views,  the  author  has 
attempted  the  publication  of  a  Grammar  adapted  to  the  capacities  of 
the  juvenile  mind — which  Grammar  he  denominates  *' An  Introduction 
to  the  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar."  The  plan  of  teaching, 
as  unfolded  in  the  latter,  is  precisely  similar  to  that  of  the  former ; 
hence  it  will  be  found  to  be  a  convenient  and  easy  introduction  to  the 
more  voluminous  and  elaborate  treatise  embraced  in  the  former  work. 

The  object  of  the  author,  in  the  publication  of  this,  as  well  as  the 
former  work,  is  to  make  thevstudy  of  English  Gramriiar  more  attractive 
by  making  it  more  thorougli  and  practical.  If  success  should  crown 
his  efforts  in  this  respect,  he  will  rest  satisfied  tliat  he  has  done  a  good 
work — a  work  that  will  tell  for  good  upon  the  present  and  sul>sequent 
gCTierations.  With  theae  few  prefjitory  remarks,  this  little  work  is 
submitted  to  the  examination  of  a  candid  and  discerning  public. 

THE  AUTHOR 

York  €ollegiate  Institute,  N.  C,  October,  18G0. 


PAia  I. 


Page. 
LESSON  I. 

A  Sentence,  1 

Subject,  1 

Predicate,  i 

Exercises.  1 

LESSON  II. 

Sentences,  1 

Simple,  1 

Co-ordinate  Connective,  2 

Complex,  2 

Compound,  2 

Exercises,  2 

LESSON  III. 

Clauses,  2 

Leading  Clause,  2 

Co-ordinate    "  3 

Subordinate   "  3 

Exercises,  3 

LESSON  IV. 

Kinds  of  sentences,  3 

Aflirmativc,  3 

Subfirmative,  3 

Interrogative,  3 

Exclamative,  4 

Imperative,  4 

Petitionative,  4 

Exercises,  4 

LESSON  V. 

Construction  of  Subject 

and  Predicate,  4 

Exercises,  5 

LESSON  VL 

Elements  of  Sentences,  5 

How  many  Elements,  5 

Subtantive  elements,  5 

Noun,  5 

Pronoun,  5 

Verbal  elements,  5 

Verb,  5 

Elements  continued,  6 


LESSON  YIL 

Adjective  elements, 

Adjective, 

Article, 

Participle, 

Adverbial  elements, 

Adverb, 

Connective  elements,        7 

Conjunction,  T 

Preposition, 

Model  for  Elements, 

Exercises, 

LESSON  Yin. 

Elements  of  the  First, 
second,  and  third  class- 
es. 

Phrase, 

Model, 

Exercises,  - 

LESSON  IX. 


Page.  Page. 

Exercises,  14 

LESSON  XIIL 

Construction     of    ele- 
ments, 14 
Promiscuous  Exercises,  15 

LESSON  XIV. 


7  Monologic  Analysis, 
Characters  used. 
Connectives, 
Such  as  give  Clauses, 
do        Phrases, 
Co-ordinate, 
Subordinate, 
Exercises, 


Principal  and  Subordinate 
Elements,  10 

Modification  of  Subject 
or  predicate  Indirect- 
ly. 11 

Model,  11 

Exercises,  H 

LESSON  X. 

The   Siibject— Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, or  Logical,  12 

Exercises,  12 


LESSON  XL 

The  Predicate,  Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, 12, 

Copula, 

Exercises, 

LESSON  xn. 

Possessive  and  Objec- 
tive elements, 


LESSON  XV. 

Dendrology  or  Construc- 
tion of  "Sentences, 

The  Trunk,  or  leading 
clause, 

The  Branch,  or  Subor- 
dinate members, 

LESSON  XVI. 

Dendrology  continued. 

Order, 

Notation, 

Integrity, 

Rank, 

LESSON  XVIL 


14 


17 


Dendrology  continued,    20 
Position "  20 

Sub  and  Super  Mem- 
bers, 20 
Illustration  by  Diagram,  21 
Exercises,  23 


LESSON  XVIIL 


Alligation, 

Diagram, 

Exercises, 


CONTENTS. 


PART    II 


Page 
LESSON  L 

Language,  25 

LESSON  IL 

Grammar,  35 

Letter?,  2<J 

Division  of  Letters,  20 
Tttl)le    of  Elementary 

bounds,  27 


Page. 


LESSON  IIL 

Englii^h  Grammar, 


28 


LESSON  IV. 

The  Divisions  of  Gram- 
mar, 28,  29 

Orthograi)liy,  Etj-molo- 
gy.  Syntax,  and  Proso- 
dy, 29 

LESSON  V. 

Parts  of  Speech  or  Clas- 
sification of  Words,     29 

Primary  and  Secondary 
Words,  29 

Definition  of  the  Parts 
of  Speech,  30 

Exercises,  31 


LESSON  VL 

Nouns, 

31 

LESSON  VIL 

Oender  and  Person, 

32 

LESSON  Yin. 
Nmnhcr, 

33 

LESSON  IX. 
Caee, 

34 

LESSON  X. 

Parsing, 

Model, 

Exercises, 

35 

an 

36 

LESSON  XL 

The  Verb,  36 
Division  of  the  Verl^,  37 
Transitive  and  Intran- 
sitive, 37 
Voice,  37 

LESSON  XIL 

The  Verb  Continued,  38 

Regular,  38 

Irregular,  38 

Auxiliary,  38 

Defective,  38 


LESSON  XIIL 

Modes  of  the  Verb, 
Diagram, 


LESSON  XIV. 

Touses  of  the  Verb,        41 
Diagram,  43 

LESSON  XV. 

Number  and  Person  of 
the  Verb,  44 

Personal  or  Verbal  ter- 
minations, 45 

Familiar  and  Solemn 
Style,  45 

LESSON  XVL 

Conjugation,  46 

Conjugation  of  the  verb 
To  Be,  56 

LESSON  XVH. 
Conjugation  of  the  verb 

Love,  50 

Passive   Voice,    how 

formed,  53 

LESSON  XVIIL 
Formation  of  Tenses,     54 

LESSON  XIX. 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs,  55 
Model  for  Parsing  the 

Verb,  59 

Exercises,  60 

LESSON  XX. 

Participle,  60 

Imperfect,  61 

Perfect,  61 

Pluperfect,  (51 

Model,  61 

Exercises,  62 

LESSON  XXI. 

Pronouns  or  Substi- 
tutes, 6:3 

Two  Classes— Personal 
and  Ilelative,  62 

LESSON  XXIL 

Declension,  63 

Diagram  of  Declension 

of  Pronouns,  64 

Model,  65 

Exercises,  65 

LESSON  XXIIL 

Relative,  or  Connective 
Pronouns,  66 


Faob. 
LESSON  XXIV. 

Of  Whoever,  Whichev- 
er, What,  67 
Models,  67 
Exercises,  68 

LESSON  XXV. 

Article,  69 

Model  and  Exercises,      70 

LESSON  XXVI. 

Adjectives    or   Attri- 
butes, 71 
Qualifying  Adjectives,    71 

LESSON  xxvn. 

Formation  of  the  De- 
grees of  Comparison,  72 
Dlustrated  by  Diagram,  73 
Model  and  Exercises,  73 

LESSON  XXVIIL 

Specifying  or  Limiting 

Adjectives,  75 

Model  and  Exercises,      75 


LESSON  XXIX. 

Adverbs  or  Modifiers,      75 
Four  Classes,  76 

Model  and  Exercises,      77 

LESSON  XXX. 

Prepositions,  77 

Model  and  Exercises,      78 

LESSON  XXXL 

Conjunctions  or  Con- 
nectives, 70 
Models  and  Exercisoe,    79 

LESSON  XXXIL 

Interjections  or  Excla- 
mations, 80 
Model  and  Exercises,      80 

LESSON  XXXIIL 

Cases  Independent,  Ab- 
solute, and  Apposi- 
tion, 81 

Models  and  Exercises,    82 


Promiscuous  Exercises  88 
LESSON  XXXIV. 

Syntax,  84 


Government, 

Concord, 

Position, 


CONTENTS. 


Page. 
LESSON  XXXV.     I 

Ridosof  Syntax,  85 

LESSON   XXXVI. 

Rnles  of  Syntax  Avilh 
Notes ;  and  Sentences 
to  be  corrected,  88 

Bxerciecs,  88 

LESSON  XXXVIL 

Rules,  Notcp,  and  False 

Svntjx  continued,        88 
Model  and  Exercises,      8!) 

LESSON  XXXVTIT. 

FalfJC  Syntax  continued,  89 
3Iodel  and  Exercises,      90 


Page. 


LESSON  XXXIX. 
False  Syntax  contin'd,  (K) 
Model  and  Exercises,      91 


LESSON  XL. 

Fivise  Syntax  continued,  91 
Model  and  Exercises,      92 

LESSON  XLL 

False  Syntax  contin'd.    9;^ 
Model  and  Exercises,      Sf4 

LESSON  XLII. 

False  Syntax  contin'd.    95 
Models  "and  Exercises,    95 


LESSON  XLIIL 

The  same  continued,       96 

LESSON  XLIV. 
Same  continued,  97 

LESSON  XLV. 

Same  continued,  98 

LESSON  XLVI. 

Same  continued,  98 

LESSON  XLVIL 

Same  continued.  99 

To  be  corrected  by  the 

Diapram  of  Time,       100 
Model  and  Exercises,    100 


Rules  and  Remarks, 

Period. 

The  Dash, 

The  Parenthesis, 

Interrogation  Point, 

Exclamation  Point, 

Brackets, 

? notation  Marks, 
he  Caret, 
The  Hyphen, 
The  Ellipsis, 
The  Index, 
Accent, 

The  Apostrophe, 
The  Asterisk, 
Marginal  Points, 

LESSON  LL 


Page. 

Ill 
115i 
112 
113 
113 
113 
113 
113 
113 
113 
114 
114 
lljt 
11^ 
115 
115 


LESSON  XLVItl. 

False  Syntax  Promiscu- 
ously Arranged,  101 


LESSON  XLIX. 

Colloquial     Inaccura- 
cies, 

LESSON  LX. 

Punctuation  or  Gnomo- 

nology. 
Comma. 

Rules  and  Remarks, 
Semicolon. 
Jiules  and  Remarks, 
Colon, 


101 


Capitals, 

LESSON  LIL 

Versificiition, 
Measure, 
Verse, 
Stanza, 

Common  Meter, 
Short  Meter, 
',  Long  Meter, 
I  Blank  Verse, 
I  Rhyme. 
I  Scanning, 

! Eight  kinds  of  Feet, 
i Iambic  Verse, 
'Alexandrine, 
: Trochaic  Verse, 
JAnapa'stic  Verse, 
(Dactylic  Verse. 


115 


iin 

116 
11(5 
116 
116 
116 
lit 
IIT 
117 
117 
117 
117 
lUt 
118 
119 
120 


INTRODUCTION 

TO  THE 

Illustrative   and    Constructive   Grammar. 


PART  FIRST. 


LESSON  I. — OP  SENTENCES. 

What  is  a  Sentcnco? 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact ;  as,  The  sun  shines. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  assert  a  fact  ? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate. 

What  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence? 

It  is  that  of  which  something  is  said. 

What  is  the  Predicate? 

It  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject.* 

Which  is  the  subject  in  the  foregoing  sentence,  "  the  sun  shines  ? 

Sun. 

Why? 

Because  something  is  said  of  it. 

What  is  said  of  it  ? 

Shines. 

What  then  is  sAine«? 

It  is  the  Predicate. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  said  or  affirmed  of  the  subject,  sun, 
EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Subjects  and  Predieates  in  the  following  sentences  :] 

Boys  play.     John  reads.     Mary  studies.     Birds  sing. 
Flowers  bloom.     Trees  grow.     Fishes  swim  in  the  sea. 


LESSON  II. 


OE  SIMPLE,  COMPOUND,  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 
What  is  a  Simple  Sentence  ? 

A  Simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject  and  predicate, 
asserting  one  fact  only  ;  as,  Rivers  flo^v. 


-i  York's  illustrative  axd 

What  is  a  Compound  sentence  ? 

A  Compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  Himple 
sentences,  united  by  a  coordinate  connective  ;  as,  Whent 
grows,  and  men  reap  it. 

What  do  you  understand  ly  a  co-ordinate  connective? 

A  co-ordinate  connective  unites  two  clauses  or  elements 
of  equal  rank  in  construction. 

What  is  a  Complex  sentence;' 

A  Complex  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  leading 
clause,  and  one  subordinate,  or  modifying  one  ;  as,  The 
boy  ivlio  studies,  will  improve. 

Which  is  the  leading  clause  in  this  sentence  ? 

The  boy  will  improve. 

Which  is  the  Subordinate  or  modifying'  claase  ' 

Who  studies. 

Why  is  this  called  the  subordinate  or  modifying  clause  .' 

Because  it  is  not  only  incapable  of  making  sense  of 
itself,  but  it  also  modifies  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Simple,  Compound,  and  Complex  sentences.] 

The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones. 
Flowers  grow  in  the  gardens.  The  bird  which  sung  so 
sweetly,  has  flown.  John  has  a  new  book.  When  he 
comes,  Ave  shall  hear  the  news.  John  reads ;  and  James 
writes. 


LESSON  in. 

OF   CLAUSES. 


What  is  a  Clause? 

A  clause  is  a  subdivision  of  a  sentence,  containing  a  sub- 
ject and  predicate. 

How  many  kinds  of  clauses  are  there  ? 

There  are  three  kinds,  viz:  ihe  leading,  the  co-ordinate, 
and  the  subordinate,  or  modifying. 

What  is  the  leading  clause  ? 

The  leading  clause  generally  stands  first  in  the  senten  '  ■* 
and  contains  the  principal  subject  and  predicate. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  3 

What  is  the  co-ordinate  clause  ? 

The  co-ordinate  clause  is  equal  in  rank  to  the  leading 
clause,  and  can  make  sense  independent  of  it. 

What  is  the  euhordxnate,  or  modifying  clause  ? 

The  subordinate  is  inferior  in  rank  to  the  leading  clause, 
and  incapable  of  making  sense  without  it.  The  following 
sentence  contains  a  clause  of  each  kind ;  "  The  scrip- 
tures CONTAIN  THE  REVEALED  WILL  OF  GoD ;  tliey  ivere 
written  at  different  periods^  hy  holy  men  who  wrote  as  the  j 
were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost." 

You  will  perceive  that  the  leading  ckuse  is  in  small 
capitals,  the  co-ordinate,  in  italics,  and  the  subordinate,  in 
roman  letters. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  clauses  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Henry  works ;  and  John  plays.  Eliza  will  improve,  if 
she  study.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when  the  messenger 
arrives.  James  is  a  good  boy,  and  he  learns  well.  The 
boy  who  does  not  study,  will  not  improve. 


LESSON  IV. 


OF  AFFIRMATIVE,  SUBFIRMATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  EXCLAM- 
ATIVE,    IMPERATIVE,    AND   PETITIONATIVE   SENTENCES. 
What  is  an  Affirmatiye  sentence? 

An  Affirmative  sentence  expresses  the  highest  degree  of 
affirmation  or  verbal  force;  as.  Snow  is  white. 

What  is  a  Subfirmative  sentence  ? 

A  Subfirmative  sentence  expresses  a  less  degree  of  ver- 
bal force  than  the  affirmative ;  as.  The  reporter  may  have 
been  mistaken.     If  Mary  study,  she  will  improve. 

What  is  an  Interrogative  sentence  ? 

An  Interrogative  sentence  contains  a  question:,  as,  Is 
Henry  at  home  ?     Who  wrote  that  ? 

How  manj  kinc's  of  Interrogative  sentences  are  there  / 

Two,  viz  :  Direct  and  Indirect. 

When  is  a  question  Direct  ? 

When  the  question  is  asked  with  a  verh,  the  answer  beipg 
yes  or  no ;  as,  J«  he  at  home  ?     No. 


4  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

■When  is  it  Indirect  ? 

'When  the  question  is  asked  with  an  adverl  or  Interrog- 
ative pronoun  ;  as,  Wiere  is  th  j  home  ?   Who  art  thou  ? 

What  is  an  Exclamative  Bentenco  ? 

An  Exclamative  sentence  expresses  some  feeling  or 
emotion  together  with  the  affirmation  ;  as,  How  cohl  and 
feeble  is  my  love  !     0  that  I  had  a  hiding  place ! 

What  is  an  Imperati^'e  sentence  ? 

An  Imperative  sentence  contains  a  command ;  as,  "  Go 
ye  into  all  the  world." 

What  is  a  Petitionative  sentence  ? 

A  Petitionative  sentence  contains  a  petiti'on ;  as,  "  For- 
give us  our  debts." 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  the  following  :] 

May  I  go  ?  May  the  Lord  prosper  your  ways  !  Boys, 
attend  to  your  studies.  He  is  at  home.  Whither  shall  I 
fly  ?  If  he  study,  he  will  improve.  I  may  have  said  it. 
Who  can  abide  his  coming.    Washington  was  a  patriot. 


LEScON   V. 

CONSTRUCTION   OP   THE   SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE. 

How  is  the  Subject  construed  in  affirmative  and  Sub-firmative  sentences? 

It  is  generally  construed  before  the  predicate  ;  at^  Flow- 
ers bloom.  The  husbandman  is  happy,  if  he  knows  his  ad- 
vantages. 

How  is  the  Subject  construed  in  Interrogative  sentoncos  ? 

It  is  generally  construed  aftar  the  predicate^  or  between 
its  parts  ;  as.  Is  Mary  at  home  ?     Does  he  know  me  ? 

How  is  it  construed  in  Exclamative  sentences  ? 

Generally  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  Kow  short  is  life  ! 

How  is  the  Subject  construed  in  Imperative  and  Petitionative  sentences? 

It  is  construed  after  the  predicate  ;  as.  Go  thou.  For- 
give thou  us  our  trespasses. 

Rem.  The  subjept  is  generally  understood  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  last. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.   '  5 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  construction  of  the  Subject  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Wolves  howl  in  the  woods.  Dogs  bark.  If  the  boys 
study,  they  will  improve.  Has  John  lost  his  pencil  ?  Is 
Mary  studious  ?  Obey  my  precepts.  Pity  thou  me.  How 
poor  is  gold  !     How  swiftly  time  glides  ! 


LESSON  VI. 

OP    THE  ELEMENTS   OF   SENTENCES. 

An  Element  is  a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

How  many  Elements  are  there  ? 

There  are  five,  classified  according  to  the  office  they 
perform  in  the  sentence. 

What  are  they  called? 

Substantive,  Verbal,  Adjective,  Adverbial,  and  Connec- 
tive. 

How  would  you  define  a  Substantive  element  ? 

Substantive  elements  are  the  names  of  things,  or  their 
substitutes,  or  whatever  can  be  made  the  subject  of  affir- 
mation. 

What  do  Substantive  elements  embrace  ? 

All  nouns  and  pronouns. 

What  do  you  mean  by  a  noun  ? 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything  ;  as,  Man,  Raleigh. 

What  by  a  Pronoun  ? 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun ;  as,  he, 
she,  it. 

What  are  Verbal  elements  ? 

Verbal  elements  are  such  as  affirm  or  express  action. 

What  do  they  embrace  ? 

All  verbs  and  their  variations. 

What  is  a  verb? 

A  Verb  asserts  or  affirms  ;  as,  The  hird  flies. 
2 


6  *       YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  VII. 

ELEMENTS   CONTINUED. 
What  are  adjecthe  elements? 

Adjective  elements  limit  substantive  elements ;  as,  Fair 
ladies  ;  men  of  business. 

What  do  Adjective  elements  embrace? 

They  embrace  all  adjectives,  articles,  and  participles. 

What  is  an  adjective  ? 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun,  to  express  its 
quality,  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  a  studious  boy ;  that 
book. 

What  is  an  Article  ? 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  their 
:rignification ;  as,  A  man;  the  men. 

Remark. — It  will  be  perceived  by  the  pupils  that  the 
iirticle  differs  but  little  from  the  specifying  adjective ;  some 
authors  have,  therefore,  classified  it  with  the  adjective. 

What  is  a  Participle  ? 

A  particle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective ;  as,  1 
riee  a  man  zvalking. 

Rem. — Such  phrases  and  clauses  as  limit  substantive 
elements,  are  also  included  in  Adjective  elements. 

What  are  Adverbial  elements  ? 

Adverbial  elements  limit  the  Predicate  or  some  other 
verbal  element. 

What  do  they  embrace? 

They  embrace  all  adverbs,  phrases,  and  clauses  use-i 
adverbially. 

What  is  an  Adverb? 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  participle, 
.tdjective,  or  adverb  ;  as,  a  very  good  ptn  writes  ex^emely 
well.     The  bird  was  singing  sweetly. 


CONSTEUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  7 

What  are  Connective  elements  ? 

They  are  such  as  unite  other  elements  in  current  dis- 
course. 

What  do  they  embrace  ? 

They  embrace  conjunctions,  prepositions,  relative  pro- 
nouns, and  connective  adverbs. 

What  is  a  Conjunction  ? 

A  Conjunction  k  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  clauses 
of  sentences ;  as,  James  and  John  are  at  home. 

What  is  a  Prep  osition  ? 

A  Preposition  i«  used  to  connect  words,  and  show  the 
relation  between  them ;  as,  Henry  went  into  the  country. 


MODEL. 


"The  lowering  clouds  move  slowly." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence ;  because  it  contains  a  single 
subject  and  predicate. 

The  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  kind,  and  limite 
the  element  eloudg  by  pointing  it  out  definitely. 

Lowering  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
limits  clouds  by  pointing  out  what  clouds  are  meant. 

Clouds  is  a  substantive  element,  and  is  the  subject  of  this 
proposition ;  because  something  is  said  of  it. 

Move  is  a  verbal  element,  and  is  the  predicate  of  thig 
sentence ;  because  it  is  said  of  the  subject,  actio7i  being 
predicated. 

Sloivl^  is  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
modifies  the  predicate  move  by  pointing  out  the  manner  of 
its  action. 

What  part  of  speech  is  the  f 

It  is  the  Definite  Article. 

Why? 

JBecause  it  limits  the  noun  clouds  to  a  particular  coller- 
tion  of  clouds. 


S  YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

What  part  of  apeech  is  louering  * 

It  is  an  Adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  noun  do%id&^  to  express  it 8 
quality. 

What  kind  cf  an  adjective  is  it? 

It  is  a  qualifying  adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  expresses  quality. 

What  part  of  speech  is  cloudt? 

It  is  a  noun. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  a  name. 

What  sort  of  a  noun  is  it? 

It  is  a  Common  Noun. 

Why' 

Because  it  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of  things- 

IThat  is  move  T 

A  verb. 

Why? 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms. 

What  is  »lowly  ? 

It  is  an  Adverb. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  move,  to  modify  its 
meaning. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyse  the  foHovring  sentences,  and  point  out  the  parts  of  speech  as 
•^shibited  in  the  above  Model  ] 

Those  tall  trees  wave  gracefully.  Good  men  sometimes 
suffer  adversity.  Careless  boys  learn  their  lessons  badly » 
John  sees  a  man  walking  slowly.     Those  mountain  tor- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  9 

rents  run  rapidly.     Those  little  birds  sing  sweetly*     The 
trumpet  sounds  loudly. 


LESSON  VIIL 
Of  Elements  otf  the  First,  Seconb,  and  Third  Classes, 

What  is  an  element  of  the  First  Cla«8  ? 

An  element  of  the  First  ckss  is  n,  singU  word,  used  as 
a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Second  Class  ? 

It  is  a  Phrase,  used  as  a«i  element  of  the  sentence. 

What  is  a  Phrase? 

A  Fhrase  consists  of  i??ro  or  more  words  closely  united,, 
and  modifying  some  other  clement,  b«t  k  contains  no  af 
•Srmation. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Third  Class  f 

It  is  a  subordinate  'dai$9e,  used  as  an  eletn-3nt  of  the  r^eii- 


MODEL, 

That  noble  <5e?neral  who  had  gained  so  many  victories, 
•-died  at  last,  in  prison. 

Tfud  is  a:n  Adjeoti^^  "element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
limits  iDrenerai  by  pointing  it  out  definiteltf. 

Nobh  is  a^  Adjective  element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
liaiits  General  hy  expressing  its  quality, 

G-efieral  is  a  Substantive  element,  and  is  the^  Subject  a 
^his  propositi-en  ;  because  something  is  said  of  it. 

W^ko  had  cf airbed  m  many  ^victories,  is  an  Adjective  ele- 
^ment  -of  the  Thii^i  Class,  and  limits  General  by  pointing: 
^out  wh^t  General  is  meant. 

Died  is  a  Verbal  element^  and  is  the  Predicate  of  this 


10  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

sentence  ;  because  it  is  affirmed  of  the  subject,  action  be- 
ing  predicated. 

At  last,  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the  Second  Class, 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  died  by  pointing  out  the  ti7ne 
♦  'f  the  event. 

In  jy^'ison^  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the  Second  Class, 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  died  bj  pointing  out  the  scene 
of  its  action. 


EXERCISES. 

I  Analy::;e  the  following  sentences,  and  point  o-at  the  parts-  of  speecii  as  in 
the  foregoing  Lessons  ] 

Mary  walked  into  the  country.  A  beam  of  tranquility 
often  plays  arounc]  the  h(^rt  of  a  truly  pious  man.  The 
student  who  studies  his  lessons  closely,  will  improve  rap- 
idly. A  winding  stream  murmured  through  the  grove. — 
Tlie  sun  shines  upon  the  fl  oor.  Henry  Clay  was  a  dis- 
tinguished orator.  Paul  was  eminent  for  bis  zeal.  Chil- 
ircn  play  upon  the  green  grass. 


LESSON  IX. 

OF    PKINCIFAL   AND   SUBORDINATE   ELEMENTS, 
What  are  Principal  Elements  ? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate. 

Because  no-  sentence  can  exist  without  them. 

What  are  Subordinate  Elements  ? 

They  are  such  as  limit  the.  subject  or  predicate,  either 
directly  or  indirectly. 

Why  aro  tboy  called  Subordinate  ? 

Because  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  sentence  ;  but  arc  of  subordinate  use,  being  em- 
ployed to  express  some  circumstance  of  a  fact. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  11 

What  is  meant  by  modifying  tbe  subject  or  predicvte  indirectly  ? 

When  an  element  modifies  either  the  subject  or  the  pre- 
dicate through  the  medium  of  some  other  element,  it  is  said 
to  modify  it  indirectly. 

Can  you  give  an  example  to  illustrate  this  ? 

"A  very  cold  day  is  very  unpleasant." 

Very^  in  this  example,  modifies  unpleasant  directly ,  and 
day  indirectly  ;  since  unpleasant  limits  day,  and  very  the 
adjective  unpleasant. 

To  what  part  of  speech,  then,  does  very  belong  ? 

In  such  constructions,  it  is  generally  called  an  Adverb ; 
but,  more  properly  speaking,  it  is  a  Secondary  Adjective. 


MODEL. 


'^  My  gold  pen  writes  extremely  well." 

Pen  and  ivrites  are  Principal  elements  ;  because  they 
are  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  sentence  ;  all  the  oth- 
ers are  Subordinate.  The  element  extremely  limits  the 
predicate  ivrites  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the  eh.'- 
ment  well ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  called  a  Secondary  Ad- 
verb. 

EXERCISES. 

[You  may  novr  dipcriminate  between  Principal  and  Subordinate  elements, 
and  point  out  such  elements  as  limit  the  Principal  ones  indirectly,  as  exhib- 
ited in  the  above  Model.] 

A  wise  man  is  very  useful.  Eliza  is  very  handsome. — 
John  is  tenacious  of  his  opinions.  The  sun  shines  very 
pleasantly.  Mary  walks  very  gracefully.  A  very  good 
pen  writes  extremely  well.  Peter  has  too  much  confi- 
dence. 


12  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  X. 

ON  THE   SUBJECT, — SIMPLE,    COMPOUND,    AND   COMPLEX. 

Your  attention  was  called  to  the  subject  in  Losson  1st;  now  can  you  tell 
me  what  the  subject  is  ? 

The  Subject  is  that  of  -which  something  is  said,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  a  kind  oi  foundation  word. 

Now  tell  me  what  you  understand  by  a  simple  subject? 

The  subject  is  Simple  when  it  consists  of  a  single  word  ; 
as,  John  writes. 

When  is  the  subject  Compound  ? 

When  it  consists  of  one  or  nore  elements  co-ordinately 
united ;  as,  Henry  and  William  obey  their  teacher. 

When  is  it  Complex? 

It  is  Complex  when  it  is  limited  by  an  clement  of  the 
.second  or  third  class  ;  as.  The  day  of  vengeance  is  at  hand. 

Rem. — The  Complex  subject  is  generally  called  the  Log- 
ical subject. 

EXERCISES.     ^ 

[Point  out  the  Subjects,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Simple,  Compound,  or 
Complex.] 

Birds  fly  in  the  air.  John  of  Boston  has  returned. — 
James  and  Joseph  reside  in  New  York.  The  boy  who 
studies,  will  improve.  Eliza  is  handsome.  Mary  and 
Martha  went  to  the  grave. 


LESSON  XL 

<'F    THE     PREDICATE — SIMPLE,     COMPOUND,    AND   COMPLEX. 

As  the  Predicate  is  a  very  important  element,  we  will 
t'all  your  attention  to  it  again. 

Can  you  tell  me  what  the  Predicate  is  ? 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  th*: 
}^  abject. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  13 

Then  is  anything  the  Predicate,  that  can  be  said  of  the  Subject  ? 

It.  is. 

A  Verb,  Adjective,  Noun,  or  Pronoun,  can  be  said  of  the  Subject;  can  all 
these  parts  of  speech  be  Predicate  ? 

Certainly ;  for,  of  the  subject,  may  be  predicated  Ac- 
tion, Quality,  or  Identity ;  as,  Peter  tvalks,  (Action) ; 
Solomon  tvas  wise,  (Quality);  John  is  a  student^  (Identity.) 

Rem. — The  verb  "  to  he,''  in  Logic,  is  called  the  Copula, 
but,  in  Grammar,  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
Predicate. 

When  is  the  predicate  simple  ? 

It  is  simple  -vvhen  it  consists  of  one  element;  as,  the 
h'w^  flies. 

Hem. — The  verb,  in  such  examples,  is  said  to  include 
both  the  Copula  and  Predicate,  and  is  equivalent  to  *'  tho 
bird  is  flying.''' 

When  is  the  predicate  Compound? 

It  is  compound  when  it  is  composed  of  two  or  more 
elements,  united  by  a  co-ordinate  connective ;  as,  King- 
doms rise  and/aZ^. 

When  is  it  Complex? 

It  is  complex  when  limited  by  an  element  of  the  second 
or  third  class ;  as,  Isaac  walked  into  the  field. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Predicates,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Simple,  Compound,  or 
Complex,  also  whether  Action,  Quality,  or  Identity  is  predicated  ] 

The  rivers  flow.  Flowers  bloom  in  the  spring.  Susan 
walks  and  talks.  She  is  wise.  Washington  was  prudent. 
Henry  is  a  student.  James  walks  through  the  fields.  The 
girls  walk  into  the  garden.  David  was  picus  and  brave. 
We  shall  hear  the  news  when  he  comes. 


14  York's  illustrative  akd 

LESSON  XIL 

OF  POSSESSIVE   AND   OBJECTIVE   ELEMENTS. 

What  13  the  Possessive  eleniont? 

When  one  substantive  element  limits  another  by  deno- 
ting Possession,  it  may  be  called  the  Possessive  clement ; 
as,  John's  book. 

Rem. — Since  Johns^  limits  book  by  pointing  out  the 
thing  possessed,  it  might,  properly  enough,  be  called  an 
Adjective  element ;  but,  as  in  parsing,  we  call  Johns  a 
Noun  in  the  Possessive  case,  it  is  better,  perhaps,  to  call 
it  the  Possessive  element. 

What  is  an  Objective  element? 

When  a  substantive  element  limits  the  predicate  or 
verbal  element,  it  is  called  the  Objective  element;  as, 
Peter  struck  Thomas. 

When  the  Objective  element  limits  the  predicate  or  verbal  element,  what 
does  it  point  out? 

It  points  out  the  object  of  its  action,  Thomas,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  foregoing  sentence,  points  out  the  object  of 
the  action^  expressed  by  the  verbal  element  struck. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Possessive  and  Objective  elements  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.] 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Mary  tore  Eliza's  book. 
James  hid  Susan's  bonnet.  The  boy  lost  the  girl's  gloves. 
Henry  wants  Sylvester's  dog.  Peter  has  lost  bis  book. 
Jane  left  her  shawl. 


LESSON  XIII. 

OF  THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   ELEMENTS. 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  construction  of  Elements? 

The  order  in  which  elements  are  arranged  in  a  sentence, 
b  called  Construction. 


CONSTRUCnVE  GRAMMAR.  15 

With  what  are  Adjective  elements  construed? 

With  subtantive  elements. 

When  Adjective  elements  of  the  first  class  are  assumed  of  their  supers, 
where  are  they  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  before  them ;  as,  a  tcide 
man,     A  beautiful  lady.     A  studious  boy. 

When  such  elements  are  predicated,  how  are  they  construed  ? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate ; 
as,  she  is  handsome.     James  is  talL 

Where  are  adjective  elements  of  the  eecond  or  third  class  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  substantive  ele- 
ment ;  as,  a  lady  of  prudence.     The  boy  who  studies. 

With  what  are  Adverbial  elements  construed  ? 

They  are  construed  with  verbal  elements. 

Can  any  precise  rule  be  given  for  the  construction  of  Adverbial  elements 
of  the  Jirst  class  1 

No.  They  should,  however,  be  so  construed  as  will 
best  promote  the  euphony  and  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

How  are  Adverbial  elements  of  the  second  and  third  classes  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate,  or  be- 
tween its  parts ;  as,  happiness  or  misery  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  placed  in  our  own  hands.  Isaac  walked  into 
the  field. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  ia  preceding 
models.] 

Henry  resides  in  New  York.  The  young  ladies  who 
study  their  lessons,  improve  rapidly.  Mary  is  handsome, 
A  wise  man  is  useful.  The  lowering  clouds  are  moving 
.slowly.  She  walks  in  the  garden.  A  man  of  studious 
habits  grows  in  knowledge.  The  sun  shines  through  the 
window. 


W  York's  illustrated  and 

LESSON  XIV. 

t)F  MONOLOOIC  ANALYSIS    OF  SENTENCES. 
"What  do  you  understand  by  Monologic  Analysis  of  sentences? 

It  is  resolving  sentences  into  clauses  and  phrases. 

"What  is  each  element  called  ? 

It  is  called  a  member^  or  mono  as  denominated  by  Mr. 
James  Brcwn  of  Philadelphia. 

"What  characters  are  used  in  this  Analysis? 

The  leading  clause  is  inclosed  in  brackets,  and  all  others 
in  parentheses,  as  exhibited  in  the  following   example : 
[Elijah  smote  the  water]  (of  Jordan)  (with  his  mantle.) 

What  can  you  say  of  the  words  of  which  each  member  is  composed  ? 

They  have  an  inseparable,  constructive  relation  to  each 
other,  and,  in  parsing,  they  must  be  disposed  of  in  their 
own  members  respectively. 

What  are  such  words  as  give  members,  called  ? 

They  are  called  member-givers. 

What  are  they  called  in  grammar,  generally  ? 

Thc}^  are  generally  called  Conjunctions,  Connective 
Adverbs,  Relative  Pronouns,  and  Prepositions  ;  but  they 
might  all  be  included  in  'one  .general  term,  Connectives. 

How  may  these  connectives  or  mcviher-givcn  be  divided  ? 

They  may  be  divided,  first,  into  such  as  give  clauses  and 
phrases. 

Which  of  them  give  clauses? 

Conjunctions,  Connective  Adverl^s,  und  Relative  Pro- 
nouns. 

Which  phrases  ? 

Prepositions. 

In  what  other  respects  may  they  be  divided  ? 

They  may  be  divided,  secondly,  into  Coordinate  and 
subordinate. 

How  would  you  define  the  co-ordinate  connectives  ? 

The  Co-ordinate  connectives  are  such  as  unite  clauses 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  IT 

or  members  of  equal  rank  in  construction.     Tliej  are  and^ 
but,  or,  nor,  and  yet. 

How  would  you  define  the  Subordinates  ? 

The  subordinate  connectives  are  such  as  join  on  mem- 
bers of  subordinate  rank  in  construction. 

What  do  they  include  ? 

They  include  Relative  Pronouns,  Connective  Adverbs,. 
Prepositions,  and  so77ie  Conjunctions,  such  as,  if,  for, 
though,  &c. 

Rem. — Connectives  should  always  be  included  in  the 
members  which  they  give ;  but,  as  they  are  connectives^ 
they  will,  of  course,  bear  some  relation  to  some  ether 
members. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  exhibited  in  the  above  example? 

The  sun  shines  through  the  window,  upon  the  floor.  The 
day  of  the  Lord  is  at  hand.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when 
the  messenger  arrives.  The  patient  had  died  before  the 
doctor  arrived.  The  young  lady  who  instructs  me  in 
grammar,  labors  faithfully.  John  has  gone  into  the  coun- 
try. Jesus  went  unto  the  mount  of  Olives.  Dagon  fell 
upon  his  face  before  the  ark  of  the  living  God. 

Rem. — In  exercising  the  class,  these  or  similar  sentences 
should  be  written  upon  the  black-board  or  slates. 


LESSON  XV. 

DENDROLOGY,   OR   CONSTRUCTION  OF   SENTENCES. 
What  is  the  literal  meaning  of  Dendrology  ?  « 

A  discourse  upon  trees. 

In  what  sense  is  it  here  employed  ? 

It  is  here  employed  in  an  accommodated  sense,  to  point 


18  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

out  the  constructive  relation  which  the  members  of  a  sen- 
tence bear  to  each  other,  as  illustrated  by  the  frame-work 
of  a  tree. 

What  part  of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  Trunk  of  a  tree? 

The  leading  clause,  or  that  part,  which,  like  the  Trunk 
of  a  tree,  can  stand  alone,  or  make  sense  of  itself. 

What  elementa  most  the  Trunk  or  loading  clause  contain  ? 

It  must  contain  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  all  ele- 
ments of  the  first  kind  which  modify  them,  if  any  are 
used. 

To  what  are  the  Bubordinate  members  compared  ? 

They  are  compared  to  the  Branches  of  a  tree. 

Why? 

Because  as  the  Branches  of  a  Tree  depend  upon,  or  are 
supported  by  the  Trunk  ;  so  the  Subordinate  members 
depend  upon  the  leading  clause,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  construction,  as  illustrated  in  Diagram.  (See 
Lesson  XVII.) 


LESSON  XVI. 

DENDROLOGY,    OR   CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES  CONTINUED. 
How  many  Orders  of  members  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz :  Trunk  and  Branch. 

What  IB  meant  by  Notation  ? 

By  Notation,  is  meant  the  actual  expression  of  all  or 
only  a  part  of  the  words  of  members. 

How  many  Notations  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz :  Plenary  and  Implenary. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Plenary  Notation  ? 

It  is  Plenary  when  all  the  words  belonging  to  it,  are 
expressed  ;  as,  [Henry  went]  (into  the  field.) 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  11^ 

"VVhftn  is  a  member  of  the  Implenary  Notation  ? 

It  is  Implenary  "when  part  of  the  words  belonging  to 
it,  are  not  expressed  ;  as,  [He  gave  (me)  an  apple,]  That 
is,  He  gave  an  apple  to  me. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Integrity  of  a  member  ? 

Integrity  respects  its  entireness  or  unbroken  state. 

How  many  integrities  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz :  Perfect  and  Imperfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Perfect  Integrity  ? 

The  Perfect  Integrity  of  a  member  is  the  entireness 
produced  by  the  juxta-position  of  all  its  words;  as,  [He 
gave  an  apple]  {to  me.) 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity? 

It  is  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  when  it  is  broken  by 
the  intervention  of  some  other  member ;  as,  The  law  (of 
the  Lord)  is  perfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Rank  of  a  member? 

The  Rank  of  a  member  respects  the  frame-work  grade 
which  the  sub-members  derive  from  their  supers. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  number  of  Ranks  ? 

The  number  is  indefinite — some  sentences  having  more, 
and  some  less. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  first  rank? 

It  is  of  the  first  rank  when  construed  with  the  Trunk 
member  or  leading  clause. 

When  of  the  second,  third,  <tc.?^ 

It  is  of  the  second  when  construed  with  one  of  the  first ; 
of  the  third  when  construed  with  one  of  the  second,  and 
io  on. 

How  should  the  Ranks  be  distinguished  ? 

By  figures  written  over  the  membei^s;  as,  1,  2,  3,  &c. 


20  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XVII. 

DENDROLOGY   OR   CONSTRUCTION   OF   SENTENCES 
CONTINUED. 

What  does  the  Poeition  of  members  respect  ? 

The  position  of  a  member  respects  the  place  it  occupies 
with  respect  to  its  super-member  or  members. 

How  macj  Positions  have  members  ? 

Three,  viz :  Juxta^  Disjuxta,  and  Binal. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Jvzta-positionf 

It  is  of  the  Juxta-position  when  construed  next  to  its 
super-member ;  as,  [Martha  went]  (to  the  grave,) 

When  of  the  Disjnxtcuposition  ? 

It  is  of  the  Disjuxta-position  when  it  is  separated  from 
its  super-member ;  as,  [Martha  went]  (with  Mary)  {to  the 
garve.) 

Rem. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  to  the 
grave^  is  construed  with  the  leading  clause,  Martha  tvent, 
but  it  is  separated  from  it,  by  the  interposition  of  the 
member,  with  Mary. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Binal-poaition  1 

It  is  of  the  Binal-position  when  it  includes  both  the 
juxta  and  disjuxta  positions ;  as,  [Martha  was  the  sister] 
(of  Mary) ;  {hut  she  was  not  the  sister)  (of  Elizabeth.) 

Rem. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  but  she 
wjM  not  the  sister,  is  construed  with  both  the  members  that 
j^ecede  it,  and  is  juxta  with  respect  to  one,  and  disjuxta 
with  respect  to  the  other ;  hence  it  is  said  to  include  both. 

What  is  meant  by  a  auper-memher  ? 

A  super-memher,  in  rank,  is  directly  above  that  mem- 
ber which  is  annexed  to  it. 

What  is  a  sul'Viemher  f 

A  sub-member,  in  rank,  is  directly  below  the  member  to 
which  it  is  annexed. 

The  principles  unfolded  in  the  preceding  lessons,  on 
Dendrology  or  Construction,  in  which  the  verbal  frame- 
work of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  frame-work  of  a 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR. 


21 


Tree,  may  be  illustrated  by  tke  following  sentence  and  Di- 
agram. 

[A  certain  Emperor  (of  China),  (on  his  accession)  (to  tho  throne)  (of  bis 

1  S 

finceeters),  commanded  a  general  release]  (of  all  those)  (who  had  t>een  im> 

8 
prisoned)  (for  debt.] 

A  certain  Emperor  €077%- 
manded  a  general  release,  is  a. 
member  of  the  Trunk  order, 
Plenary  notation,  Imperfect 
integrity,  and  of  the  Affirma- 
tive kind,  because  it  expresses 
the  hightest  degree  of  verbal 
force. 

Of  China,  is  a  member  of 
the  Branch  order,  Plenary 
notation,  Perfect  integrity, 
first  rank,  juxta-posi lion,  and 
reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its 
super  ;  thus,  A  certain  Emperor  of  China  commanded  a 
general  release. 

On  his  accession,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order.  Ple- 
nary notation.  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  disjuxta-posi- 
tion,  and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super,  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  on  his  accession. 

To  the  throne,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Plena- 
ry notation.  Perfect  integrity,  second  rank,  juxta-position, 
and  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for  its  super. — 
On  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

Of  his  ancesters,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Ple- 
nary notation,  Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-po- 
sition, and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its  super.  To 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Of  all  those  persons,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Tm- 
plenary  notation,  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  juxta-posi- 
tion, and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super.  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  of  all  those  persons. 
Who  had  been  imprisoned,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  or- 
der, Plenary  notation,  Perfect  integrity,  second  rank,  jux- 


22  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

ta'positlon,  and  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for 
its  super.     Of  all  those  who  had  been  imprisoned. 

For  debt,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Plenary  no- 
tation, Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-position, 
and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its  super.  Who  had 
been  imprisoned  for  debt. 

By  inspecting  the  Diagram,  the  learner  will  perceive  that 
branches  No.  1  depend  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
clause,  that  branches  No.  2  depend  directly  upon  No.  1, 
and  that  those  of  No.  3  depend  directly  upon  No.  2,  but 
that  all  depend  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  Trunk  or 
leading  member. 

Which  ia  the  Trunk  or  leading  clause  in  the  foregoing  sentence? 

A  certain  Emperor  commanded  a  general  release. 

Why? 

Because,  like  the  Trunk  of  a  Tree,  it  can  stand  alone,  or 
make  sense  of  itself. 

Why  is  it  of  the  Plenary  notation  7 

Because  each  word  belonging  to  it,  is  expressed. 

Why  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  ? 

Because  its  entireness  is  broken  by  the  member,  of 
China. 

Why  of  tb»  afiSrmative  kind  / 

Because  it  expresses  the  highest  degree  of  verbal  force- 

Whj  ia  on  hta  accttaion  of  the  Branch  order? 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  Trunk,  and  cannot  make 
sense  of  itself. 

Why  of  th«  first  rank  ? 

Because  it  depends  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
member  for  its  siiper. 

Why  of  the  dtt/ux^a-position  f 

Because  it  is  separated  from  its  super,  or  the  member 
with  which  it  has  a  constructive  relation. 

Why  u  the  member,  to  the  throne,  of  the  tscond  rank  ? 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  first  for  its  super. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  23 

Why  is  the  m^mher,  of  h{«  ancestors,  of  the  third  rankf 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  second  rank  for  its  super. 

Rem.  To  Teachers.  The  Teacher  may  ask  similar 
questions  until  the  young  learners  become  familiar  with  all 
the  terms  used  in  this  nomenclature. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyse  and  Constrae  the  following  sentences  as  exhibited  in  the  forego- 
ing Models.] 

1  1 

[A  beam  (of  tranquility)  often  plays]  (around  the  heart) 

2  1 

(of  the  truly  pious  man).  [Martha  went]  (with  Mary),  (to 
the  grave)  (of  Lazarus).  [There  was  a  marriage]  (in  Cana) 
(of  Galilee).  [Dagon  fell]  (upon  his  face)  (before  the  ark) 
(of  the  living  God).    ^The  young  lady  (who  instructs  me) 

2*12 

(in  Grammar),  live%]  (in  the  city)  (of  New  York).  [Lot 
fled]  (with  his  two  daughters),  (to  the  mountains).    [Mary 

1  1  2 

remained]  (in  the  house)  (with  the  Jews)  (who  had  visited 
her).  [Time  slept]  (on  flowers,)  (and  lent  his  glasses)  (to 
hope).    (On  that  night,)  [sleep  departed]  (from  the  king.) 

[The  Lord,  (into  his  garden,)  comes ;] 

(The  spices  yield  a  rich  perfume ;) 

(The  lilliea  grow  and  thrive.) 

Rem. — After  the  class  has  been  fully  practiced  on  the 
above  exercises,  sentences  should  be  written  upon  the  black- 
board or  slate  without  the  analysis. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

OF  ALLIGATION  OF   SENTENCES. 
What  is  Alligation  ? 

It  is  the  art  of  combining  the  words  of  a  sentence,  by 


24  York's  illustrative  and 

lines  which  indicate  the  government^  relation^  and  connect 
lion  of  the  several  parts. 

How  are  lines  which  indicate  goTcrnmont  drawn  ? 

They  are  drawn  over. 

How  are  all  others  drawn  7 

They  are  drawn  under,  as  shown  in  the  following  Dia^ 
gram: 


d^-e/rUy^  "V/^/Zi^  n/M//o  'Tyui  to  Wit 


Line  1  shows  Henry  governs  went,  and  reads  with  it — 
Henry  went.  Line  2  shows  with,  connects  went  and  me^ 
nnd  reads  with  them — went  with  me.  Line  3  shows  that 
with  governs  me,  and  reads  with  it — with  me.  Line  4 
shows  that  to  connects  went  and  zlii'p,  and  reads  with 
them — went  to  ship.  Line  5  shows  to  governs  M'p,  and 
reads  with  it — to  ship.  Line  6  shows  that  the  belongs  to 
thi'p,  and  reads  with  it — the  ship. 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  not  only  to  give  an  occu- 
lar  illustration  of  the  various  grammatical  connections  and 
relations  which  words  bear  to  each  other  in  a  sentence, 
but  also  to  show  that  words  which  are  grammatically  rela- 
ted to  each  other,  make  sense  when  read  together. 

EXERCISES. 

[Write  the  following  and  similar  sentences  on  slates  or  the  Black-board, 
and  give  the  alligation  as  exhibited  in  the  above  Diagram.] 

The  old  fox  heard  the  hunter's  horn  sounding.  Foxes 
kill  women's  geese.  I  see  a  man  walking  through  the 
fields.  The  day  glides  sweetly  o'er  our  heads.  That  old 
man  labors  in  the  field.  John  walked  with  his  sisters  to 
church.  Mary  studies  her  lessons  well.  The  moon  shines 
through  broken  clouds.  The  lowering  clouds  are  moving 
filowly.     Elizabeth  went  into  the  hill-country. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR^  25 

PART     SECOND. 

LESSON  I. 

OF    LANGUAGE, 
What  is  language  ? 

Language  is  the  medium  through  which  mind  travels  to 
mind,  and  thereby  communicates  thoughts,  feelings,  de- 
sires, and  affections. 

Do  brutes,  in  any  sense,  possess  the  power  of  language  ? 

In  some  sense,  they  do  ;  since,  by  various  inarticulate 
sounds,  they  make  known  tlieir  wants  and  sufferings. 

How  many  kinds  of  language  are  there? 

Two,  namely,  spoken  aad  written. 

What  are  the  elements  of  spoken  language? 

They  are  simple  aotinds,  uttered  by  the  human  voice. 

What  are  the  elements  ef  written  language  ? 

They  are  letters  or  characters,  invented  to  represent 
simple  sounds. 

May  not  Jeaticulation  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  language  ? 

It  may ;  since  men,  who  are  barbarians  to  each  other, 
can  understand  each  other  by  means  of  signs  or  jesture©. 

Since  language  is  the  medium  of  communicating  thoughts,  is  it  not  im- 
portant that  it  should  bo  understood.' 

It  is  ;  and,  hence,  arises  th-e  necessity  of  studying  tho- 
roughly the  Grammar  of  the  language  which  we  employ 
for  such  medium  of  communication  of  thought. 


LESSON  IL 

OF  GRAMMAR. 
What  is  grammar  ? 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  language,  or,  more  literally, 
the  science  of. letters,  or  the  science  of  sounds. 


26  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

What  do  letters  represent  / 

They  represent  simple  sounds. 

How  many  Eimple  sounds  aro  there  in  the  English  language  T 

Thirty-eight. 

How  many  letters  or  signs  are  there  to  represent  these  sounds .' 

There  are  but  thirty-six  in  the  English  Alphabet. 

What  necessarily  follows  from  there  being  more  sounds  than  letters  / 

Some  letters  must  represent  more  sounds  than  one, 

"What  must  necessarily  arise  from  this  f 

Much  obscurity  and  many  provincialisms. 

How  many  letters  should  there  be  in  a  perfect  language  / 

As  many  as  there  are  simple  sounds. 

How  are  the  letters  of  the  English  Alphabet  generally  divided  1 

Into  Vowels  and  Consonants, 

How  are  the  Consonants  sub-divided.' 

Into  Mutes  and  Semi-vowels, 

Is  this  division  founded  in  philosophic  truth  ? 

No ;  for  every  sound  may  be  uttered  in  its  own,  indi- 
vidual, and  elementary  character ;  yet,  it  is  said,  the  Mutes 
cannot  be  sounded  at  all  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 

What  would  be  a  more  philosophic  and  truthful  division  of  the  letters  of 
the  Alphabet! 

A  more  truthful  division  would  be  into  three  classes, 
viz :  Vowels  or  Tonics,  Sub-vowels  or  Sub-tonics,  and 
Atonies  or  Aspirates,  as  exhi])ited  in  the  following  Table 
in  which  are  displayed  the  thirty-eight  cJemcntary  sounds, 
and  the  manner  of  representing  them  : 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR, 


27 


THIRTY-EIGHT 

SIMPLE 

SOUNDS. 

15  Vowels. 

14  Sub-vowels.    | 

9   Aspirates, 

a 

in  ale 

b 

in  bow 

P 

m  pm 

a 

"  arm 

d 

"  duty 

t 

''   tin 

a 

"   all 

g 

"  gay 

sh 

*^  shade 

S 

"   an 

I 

"  love 

k 

**  kit« 

e 

"   eve 

m 

"  man 

8 

^^  sin 

€ 

"  end 

n 

**  no 

f 

"  fume 

1 

"   ile 

n§ 

"  song 

th 

"  thin 

1 

"  in 

r 

''  roll 

h 

^^  hat 

6 

"   old 

th 

''  thou 

wh 

''  wh*t 

0 

''  lose 

V 

«  vow 

5 

"  on 

w 

'*  wo 

u 

''  tube 

7 

*^  yoke 

ii 

^'  up 

z 

*'  zone 

u 

^'  full 

z 

"  azure 

ou 

"  our 

Rem. — It  will  be  observed,  that  j,  x,  and  ch  are  not 
found  in  the  above  table ;  the  reason  of  this  is,  they  do 
not  represent  simple  sounds,  but  compound  ones.  J  rep- 
resents the  sound  of  d  in  day  and  of  z  in  azure  ;  as,  Job, 
John,  &c. 

Rem.  to  Teachers. — It  is  not  intended  that  the  table  of 
elementary  sounds  should  be  committed  to  memory  by  the 
pupils .;  but  the  Teacher  should  utter  the  sounds  accurately 
in  their  elementary  character,  the  pupils  uttering  them 
after  him. 


28  "rORK'sniLUSTRATIVE  ANC 

(For  further  information  concerning  the  simple  scfunds 
of  the  English  Language  and  the  Analysis  of  words,  the 
learner  is  referred  to  the  Illustrative  and  Constructive 
Grammar,  Part  Second.) 


LESSON  IIL 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


What  is  Engliei  Grammar/ 

It  is  the  science  of  the  English  Language, 

What  does  it  comprise  f 

It  comprises  both  a  Science  and  an  Art. 

mx&t  does  it  toach  as  an  Art? 

As  an  Art,  it  teaches  how  the  English  Language  should 
be  written  and  spoken. 

What  as  a  Science  f 

As  a  Science,  it  teaches  why  one  form  of  speech  should 
be  used  rather  than  another. 

What,  then,  is  the  difference  between  Science  aad  Art? 

Science  tells  wlit/  a  thing  is  done;  Art  how  it  is  done. 

What,  then,  will  Xnglieh  Grammar,  well  understood  both  as  a  Science  and 
an  Art,  enable  one  to  do? 

It  will  enable  one  to  speak  and  write  the  English  Lan- 
guage correctly. 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  DIVISION  OP  GRAM  MAE. 
Into  how  many  parts,  is  Grammar  ditidcd  ? 

Into  four,  viz :  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax  and 
Prosody,, 


CONSTRUCTIVE   aRAMMAR. 


29 


What  does  Orthography  teach  ? 

The  name  and  power  of  letters,  and  the  art  of  spelling. 

Where  must  this  art  be  chiefly  acquired  ? 

From  the  Spelling-book  and  Dictionary. 

Of  "what  does  Etymology  treat? 

Of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  their  various  inflection, 
and  the  derivation  of  words. 

What  does  Syntax  teac-h  ? 

It  teaches  the  correct  construction  and  arrangement  of 
sentences. 

Of  -what  does  Prosody  treat? 

It  treats  of  the  just  pronunciation  of  sentences^  and  the 
rules  of  versification. 


LESSON  V, 

PARTS  OP  SPEECH  OR  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 
Into  how  many  Classes,  are  words  naturally  divided? 

Into  two,  namely.  Primary  and  Secondary. 

What  are  Primary  words? 

Those  that  are  essential  to  the  language  of  men,  to  which 
all  others  bear  a  subordinate  relation. 

What  parts  of  speech  are  they  ? 

The  Noun  and  Verb. 

Why  are  they  Primary  t 

Because,  of  these,  a  complete  proposition  may  be  con- 
structed ;  as,  God  is.    Time  flies. 

What  ara  Secondary  words  7 

They  are  of  subordinate  use  in  language,  sustaining  a 
branch  relation  to  the  Primary. 

How  mony  sorts  of  words  or  Parts  of  Speech  are  there? 

Thero  are  ten,  viz :  the  Noun,  Verb,  Participle,  Pronoun, 


'^O  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Article,  Adjective,  Adverb,  Treposition,  Conjunction,  and 
Interjection  or  Exclamation. 

Rem.  Grammarians  generally  name  nine  Parts  of  Speech, 
excluding  the  Participle  ;  but  we  see  no  sufficient  reason  for 

this. 

What  is  a  Konn  ? 

It  is  the  7ia77ie  of  anything ;  as,  Man,  virtue. 

What  is  a  Verb? 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  affirms,  or  expresses 
action;  as,  The  boy  reacts.     The  child  jt?%5. 

TThat  is  a  participle  ? 

A  Participle  is  a  word,  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective  ;  but  de- 
pends upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  construction ;  as,  I  see 
a  bird  flying, 

"What  is  a  Pronoun  1 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  and  gener- 
ally to  avoid  its  repetition ;  as,  James  reads,  and  lie  will 
soon  read  well. 

What  is  an  Article  / 

An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  the  extent 
of  their  signification  ;  as,  A  man.     The  boys. 

What  is  an  Adjective  t 

An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit  its 
meaning,  or  express  its  quality  ;  as,  A  beautiful  lady.  That 
river. 

What  is  an  Adverb  1 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs, 
participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  Mary  writes 
very  well. 

What  is  a  Preposition  ? 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  generally  placed  before  some 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  governs ;  it,  also,  shows  the  re- 
lation which  this  word  bears  to  some  other  word  which 
precedes  it  in  construction :  as,  Henry  went  with  me. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  81 

What  is  a  Conjunction .' 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  together  parts  of  a 
.•sentence,  or  parts  of  a  discourse  in  a  regular  construction  ; 
as,  John  goes  to  school,  and  learns  well. 

What  is  an  Interjection  or  Exclamation  / 

A.n  Exclamation  generally  expresses  some  emotion  of 
the  speaker,  but  has  no  dependent  construction ;  as,  "  Alas ! 
and  did  my  Saviour  bleed?" 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  parts  of  Speech  in  the  following  sentences.] 

The  river  flows  slowly.  The  sun  shines  by  day,  and  the 
moon  gives  light  by  night.  Henry  lost  his  hat.  Alas ! 
that  man  has  made  a  fatal  mistake.  I  see  a  man  walking. 
John  went ;  but  Peter  stayed. 


LESSON  VI, 

OP  NOUNS. 
What  is  a  Noun  ; 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing;  as,  Man,  Virtue, 

How  many  kinds  ©f  nouns  are  there? 

There  are  two,  viz:  Proper  and  Common. 

What  is  a  Proper  noun  ? 

A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  individual  person  or 
thing  ;  as,  Mary,  Delaware. 

What  is  a  Common  noun  ? 

A  Common  noun  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of 
persons  or  things  ;  as  Man,  river. 

What  is  a  Common  noun,  comprising  several  persons  or  things  intone  cel- 
lectivc  body,  called  ? 

A  Collective  noun,  or  Noun  of  multitute ;  as,  Commit- 
tee, army. 


32  York's  illustrative  and 

What  belong  to  Nouns? 

To  nouns  belong  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 


LESSON  VII. 

OP  GENDER  AND  PERSON, 

What  is  Gender? 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex. 

How  many  sexes  are  there  / 

Two,  viz:  Male  and  Female. 

How  many  Genders  are  there*? 

Since  there  are  but  two  sexes,  strictly  speaking,  there 
are  but  two  genders. 

How  many  Genders  are  thought,  by  some  grammarians,  to  bo  convenient 
in  parsing? 

Four,   viz:  Masculine,   Feminine,   Neuter,   and   Com- 
mon. 

What  does  the  Masculine  Gender  denote  ? 

The  Masculine  Gender  includes  all  males;  as,  Man, 
horse. 

What  does  the  Feminine  denote  / 

The  Feminine  includes  aM  females;  as,  woman,  hen. 

What  does  the  Neuter  include? 

The  Neuter  includes  such  as  have  no  sex ;  as.  Chair, 
river. 

How  may  the  Common  Gender  be  defined  ? 

Nouns  which  are  equally  applied  to  both  sexes,  are 
called  Common  Gender ;  as,  Friend,  child. 


Rem. — The  application  of  the  Neuter  and  Commor 
Genders  in  parsing,  is  of  little  or  no  practical  utility 
since  it  adds  nothing  to  the  sense. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  58 

W&at  is  Person  in  grammar .' 

Person  distinguishes  the  relation   of  a  noun   to  the 
speaker. 

How  many  Persons  have  noime  f 

Three,  viz  :  the  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

What  does  the  First  Person  denote  f 

It  denotes  the  speaker  ;  as  7,  John,  saw  him. 

What  the  Second  Person  ! 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  to, 
or  addressed  ;  as,  James,  I  desire  i/ou  to  study. 

What  the  Third  Person  ? 

The  Third  Person  denotes  the  person  spoken  of,  or 
about ;  as,  Feter  wept  bitterly. 


LESSON  VIII. 

OP  NUMBER. 


What  is  Number  f 

Number  is  the  distinction  oi  unity  imd pluraliti/. 

How  many  numbers  have  nouns/ 

Two,  viz ;  the  Singular  and  Plural. 

What  does  the  Singular  number  imply  ! 

It  implies  uniti/,  or  but  one  ;  as,  A  hopk^ 

What  does  the  Plural  number  denote? 

It  denotes  plurality,  or  more  than  one;  as,  Books. 

How  is  the  Plural  of  nouns  formed  ? 

The  Plural   is   generally  formed  by  annexing  s  or  esf 
to  the  singular. 

When  is  «  only  annexed  .' 

When  it  will  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  other  letters  ;  as, 
Table,  tables. 


34  York's  illustrated  and 

When  is  es  annexed  ? 

When  s  will  not'  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  preceding  let- 
ters; aSyljYSLTich,  branches. 

Is  tho  Piural  of  nouns  formed  in  any  other  way  1 

Yes,  in  various  ways. 

Mention  a  few  of  them. 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  j^,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  their 
plurals  by  changing  y  into  i,  and  annexing  es  ;  as,  Yly,  flies. 
Spy,  spies. 

2.  Fifteen  nouns  in  f  or  fe,  viz:  beef,  calf,  elf,  half, 
leaf,  loaf,  self,  sheaf,  shelf,  thief,  wharf,  wolf,  life, 
knife,  and  wife,  form  their  plurals  by  changing  /  into  v, 
and  annexing  es  or  s;  as,  Beef,  beeves.  Wife,  wives  ; 
other  nouns,  in  /  or,  fe,  form  their  plurals  in  the  regu- 
lar way:  as.  Dwarf,  dwarfs.  Handkerchief,  handker- 
chiefs, 

3.  Some  nouns  are  very  irregular  in  the  formation 
of  their  plurals ;  as,  Man,  men.     Child,  childreny  &c. 

Do  Proper  nouns  adait  of  a  plural .' 

They  do  not ;  for,  in  such  case,  they  would  become  Com- 
mon; as.  The  twelve  Coesars,    The  PZafoa  of  the  age. 


LESSON  IX. 

OF    CASE. 


What  is  meant  by  Case  f 

Case,  as  applied  in  Grammar,  distinguishes  the  rela- 
tion of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  a  verb,  participle,  prepo- 
sition, or  another  noun. 

How  many  cases  have  nouns  and  pronouns  f 

Three,  viz  :  the  Nominative,  Possessive,  and  Objective. 

IThat  relation  does  the  Nominative  Case  bear  to  the  verb  1 

It  bears  the   relation  of  subject;  as,  John  walks;  it 


^,       CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  35 

is,  also,    said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  when  predicated 
of  the  subject  ;  as  John  is  a  student.     It  is  I. 

What  relation  doea  the  Possessive  Case  show  .' 

It  shows  the  relation  of  possession  or  ownership;  as,  Pe- 
ter's wife  8  mother.     Henry  s  horse. 

Rem.  Some  nouns,  having  the  Possessive /orw,  do  not 
imply  ownership  ;  they  are,  strictly  speaking,  Specifyino- 
Adjectives ;  as,  Harriet  makes  ladies  bonnets;  Johnson 
sells  hoys'  hats. 

TFhat  ralation  doeo  the  Objective  case  show  .' 

The  Objective  case  shows  the  relation  of  an  object,  and 
is  either  the  object  of  an  action,  or  of  a  relation ;  as, 
Charles  struck  John  on  the  head. 

When  is  the  Objective  case  the  object  of  an  ac<tont 

It  is  the  object  of  an  action  when  it  is  governed  by  a 
verb  or  participle. 

When  the  object  of  a  relation  ? 

It  is  the  object  of  a  relation  when  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition; 


LESSON  X. 

OP  PARSING. 
What  is  Parsing! 

In  Parsing  a  word,  I  first  name  the  part  of  speech  or 
class  of  words  to  which  it  belongs. 

What  next ! 

i  next  mention  the  properties  or  accidents  belonging  to 
the  word. 

What  else  ? 

I  then  state  its  agreement  or  government,  as  the  case 
may  be,  and  quote  the  rule. 

I  will  now  present  you  with  a  Model  for  Parsing.  . 


S6  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

MODEL. 

James  loves  Mary's  sister. 

James  is  a  Proper  noun,  Masculine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  nominative  case  to  the  verb 
loves,  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Loves  is  a  regular.  Transitive  verb.  Active  voice,  Indi- 
cative mode,  Present  tense,  and  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  John,  accord- 
ing to  rule  0. 

Mary's  is  a  proper  noun,  feminine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  sister,  according  to  Rule  4. 

Sister  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  gov- 
erned by  the  verb  loves,  according  to  Rule  19. 

EXERCISES. 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Foxes  kill  women's  geese. 
Eliza's  cat  caught  a  rat.  James  lost  Henry's  ball.  Rivers 
flow.  Birds  fly.  Arthur's  dog  killed  Henry's  cat.  Rab- 
bits eat  people's  peas.  Thomas  hurt  Robert's  finger.  Boys 
love  play. 


LESSON  XL 

OF   VERBS. 


"What  18  a  Verb? 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  affirms,  or  expresses 
action ;  as,  The  river  flows.    He  went  to  join  the  army. 

Rem. — Perhaps  no  single  definition  can  fully  unfold  the 
varied  import  of  the  verb ;  but,  in  some  sense,  it  may  be 
said,  under  all  circumstances,  to  express  something  of  the 
nature  of  an  affirmation. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   OEAMMAE.  37(J 

How  may  tlie  Verb  be  divided  ? 

It  may  be  divided  into  Transitive  and  Intransitive,  Re- 
gular and  Irregular,  Auxiliary  and  Defective. 

When  is  a  verb  Transitive  ? 

When  it  has  the  power  to  affeci  an  object ;  as,  Jane 
zorites  letters. 

Must  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb  alwaye  be  expressed  / 

No ;  "if  the  object  is  obvious,  it  need  not  always  be  ex- 
pressed ;  as.  The  boy  reads^  i.  e.  he  reads  hoolcs  or  some- 
thing else. 

How  are  Transitive  verbs  distinguished  ? 

By  voice. 

What  is  meant  by  Voice  ? 

Voice  has  been  defined  to  be  the  particular  mode  of  in- 
flecting or  conjugating  the  verb,  or  it  may  be  said  to  ex- 
press the  condition  of  its  subject  as  active  or  passive. 

Mow  many  Voices  have  verbs  ? 

Two,  viz :  Active  and  Passive. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  Active  Voice  ? 

It  is  in  the  Active  voice,  when  the  nominative  performs 
the  action ;  as,  Brutus  slew  Caesar.  Here  Brutus  the  sub- 
ject, performs  the  action. 

When  is  ^,  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice  ? 

It  is  in  the  Passive  Voice  when  the  subject  receives  the 
action ;  as,  Caesar  was  slain  by  Brutus. 

Rem. — In  this  example,  Caesar  is  the  subject  of  the  verb, 
was  slain,  but  is  still  the  object  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb. 

When  is  a  verb  Intransitive? 

It  is  Intransitive  when  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  ob- 
ject ;  as,  The  bird  flies. 

Do  Intransitive  verbs  have  voice  ? 

They  do  not ;  though  a  few  of  them  admit  of  the  form 
of  the  Passive  voice ;  as,  lie  is  gone. 


38  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XII. 

OF   VERBS    CONTINUED. 
When  ia  a  verb  Regular  ? 

When  it  forms  its  Past  tense  and  Perfect  participle  by 
annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root  or  simplest  form  of  the  verb, 
it  is  Regular  ;  as,  Love,  loved,  loved.  Walk,  walked,  walked. 

Rem.  l.—It  will  readily  be  seen,  that,  if  the  root  of  the 
verb  ends  in  e,  d  only  is  annexed ;  but,  if  it  ends  in  any 
other  letter,  ed  is  annexed. 

Rem.  2. — Such  verbs  may  be  said  to  be  Regular ;  be- 
cause their  Paat  tense  and  Perfect  participle,  are  formed 
according  to  rule. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  appear  to  be  Regular  when  they 
are  not ;  such,  for  instance,  as  those  whose  root  ends  in 
some  other  letter  besides  e,  yet  having  their  parts  formed 
by  annexing  d  only ;  as.  Hear,  heard,  heard. 

When  are  verba  Irregular  ? 

They  are  Irregular  when  the  Past  tense  and  Perfect 
participle  are  formed  by  varying  the  root,  or  when  they 
are  monotonous,  admitting  of  no  variation ;  as,  see,  miv, 
seen.     Set,  set,  set. 

Rem. — In  the  first  example,  the  root  of  the  verb  see  is 
varied,  i.  e,  the  other  parts  assume  a  form  different  from 
the  root ;  but,  in  the  last  example,  the  root  is  not  varied, 
the  parts  all  having  the  same  form. 

What  is  aa  Auxiliary  verb  ? 

Such  verbs  as  are  used  to  assist  other  verbs  in  forming 
the  modes  and  tenses,  are  called  Auxiliaries ;  as.  May, 
can,  must,  might,  could,  should,  &,c. 

HTxat  is  a  Defective  verb  ? 

Such  a  verb  as  can  only  be  used  in  some  of  the  modes 
and  tenses;  as.  Ought,  can,  &c. 

Rem. — The  learner  should  bear  in  mind,  though  we  have 
mentioned  several  classes  of  verbs,  yet  all  verbs  whether 


CONSTEUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  39 

Reg\ilar  or  Irregular,  Auxiliary  or  Defective,  are  either 
Transitive  or  Intransitive. 

What  belong  to  verbs  ? 

Mode  and  Tense,  Number  and  Person. 


LESSON  xni. 

OF   MODES. 


"What  is  the  Mode  of  a  verb  ? 

Mode  is  the  manner  of  representing  affirmation. 

How  many  Modes  aro  there  ? 

Five,  vis  :  Indicative,  Subjunctive,  Potential,  Imperative, 
and  Infinitive. 

IIow  does  the  Indicative  mode  represent  athnnation  ? 

Positively  and  without  limitation ;  as.  She  love^. 

How  does  the  Subjunctive  represent  affirmation  ? 

The  Subjunctive  mode  affirms  a  thing,  subject  to  some 
condition ;  as.  If  Eli/.a  studij^  she  will  improve. 

How  does  the  Potential  represent  affirmation? 

The  Potential  mode  affirms  possibility,  liberty,  power, 
will,  obligation,  or  necessity  ;  as,  It  mai/  rain.  He  7nai/ 
go.    Ke  can  go.  He  would  go.  He  should  go.  Ke  must  go. 

For  what  is  tbo  Imperative  mode  used? 

It  is  used  for  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or 
permitting ;  as,  Obeg  my  precepts.     Go  in  peace. 

How  does  the  Infinitive  represent  affirmation  ? 

It  does  not  limit  it  to  any  particular  subject ;  as,  Mat- 
tha  went  to  meet  Jesus. 

From  what,  does  the  Mode  of  verbs  arise  ? 

From  the  various  ways  in  which  affirmation  is  made 


40 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATED  AND 


oncerning    the   subject,   as    illustrated  in  the    following 


The  perpendicular  column  represents  the  subject  of  affir- 
mation. 

Firruro  1  represents  what  is  affirmed  indicatively ;  as 
rhe  figure  is  in  juxta-position  with  the  subject,  it  shows 
that  whatever  is  indicatively  predicated,  belongs  absolutely 
to  the  subject;  as,  The  bird  fties.     Job  was  patient. 

Figure  2  illustrates  the  Subjunctive  Mode,  or  what  is 
predicated  with  some  limitation  ;  as  but  one  of  the  parallel 
lines  of  which  the  f.gure  is  composed,  is  in  juxta-position 
with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  what  is  affirmed  of  the  sub- 
ject, may  or  may  not  belong  to  it;  an,  If  Caesar  was  a 
tyrant,  he  deserved  death. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  Potential  Mode,  or  what  is 
affirmed  potentially  ;  as  the  figure  is  not  in  juxta-position 
with  the  subject,  it  show^s  that  whatever  is  affirmed  poten- 
tiall3%  does  not  belong  absolutely  to  the  subject,  but  that 
only  tlie  probability,  power,  liberty,  necessity,  &c.,  of  ac- 
tion or  (piality,  is  predicated  ;  as,  The  bird  can  fly.  John 
may  he  good. 

Figure  4  illustrates  the  Imperative  Mode,  or  what  is 
affirmed  imperatively.  In  tliis  Mode,  the  subject  is  com- 
manded to  act,  or  to  possess  a  quality  ;  it  is  clear  that  at 
the  time  of  command,  the  action  or  quality  required,  does 
not  exist  in  the  subject ;  but,  as  it  is  presumed  that  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  41 

speakerhas  power  to  enforce  obedience,  tliere  is  a  very  strong 
probability,  that  what  is  commanded  will  be  performed; 
the  figure,  therefore,  though  not  in  juxta-position  with  the 
subject,  is  made  to  approach  very  near  it ;  as,  Obey  my 
precepts. 

Figure  5  illustrates  the  Infinitive  Mode ;  as  the  figure 
is  not  connected  with  the  subject,  but  with  the  part  of  the 
Diagram  which  represents  the  predicate,  it  shows  that  the 
Infinitive  never  makes  a  direct  alFinnation  concerning  the 
subject,  but  depends  upon  some  other  element  in  construc- 
tion ;  as,  He  ivent  to  join  the  army. 

Questions. 

What  does  the  perpendicular  column  of  the  Diaermn  rppresent  ?  Wba»- 
do  tho  other  parts  represent?  The  Proaioiio.  rt  haf  dues  dg.  l;jt  represent/ 
What  fig.  2d,  tig.  5d,  Jtc. '( 


LESSON  XIV. 

OF   TENSE. 


What  is  Tense  1 

Tense  means  time. 

How  maDy  Tonaes  have  verbs  ? 

Six,  viz :  Present,  Past,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future, 
and  Future-Perfect. 

What  does  the  Present  tense  denote  ? 

Present  time ;  as,  I  write,  I  am  writing  now. 

What  does  the  Past  tense  denote? 

Simply  past  time  ;  as,  I  ivrotc  yesterday. 

What  does  the  Perfect  denote  ? 

The  Perfect  tense  represents  an  event  which  \?,  imst^  but 
the  period  of  time  in  which  it  occurred,  is  connected  with 
the  present ;  as,  I  have  written  to-day. 

What  does  the  Pluperfect  represent? 

It  represents  time  which  is  not  simply  past,  but  2^rior  to 


42 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  ANP 


Fome  other  time  i^'hich  is  also  past;  as,  I  Itad  written  the 
letter  before  the  mail  arrived. 

Wk*t  does  the  Fatnre  tense  dinc^e  ? 

Simply /wfwre  time  ;  as,  I  shall  wriU  to-Hiorrow. 

What  dees  the  Futare-Perfeet  tense  yepyesent  ? 

It  represents  an  event  that  ^vill  be  past  at  or  before 
some  other  future  time  specified ;  as,  I  ihall  have  written 
by  the  appointed  time. 

You  may  now  examine  the  foTlowinfr  Diagram  whicb 
illustrates  the  six  Tenses  of  the  verb. 


Perfect. 


Future  >> 


Time  is  duration 
measured. 


Eternity  is  duration 
without  measure 


The  space  included  by  the  vertical  lines  (1),  represents 
present  time. 

The  space  on  the  left  of  the  vertical  lines,  represents 
past  time,  and  that  on  the  right  of  the  vertical  lines,  rep- 
resents future  time.  '' 

Figure  2,  which  consists  of  but  one  line,  having  no  con- 
nection with  the  Present,  illustrates  the  Past  tense  of  the 
verb. 

This  tense  is  properly  used  in  speaking  and  writixig^ 
•when  both  the  event  and  the  period  of  time  in  which  it 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  43 

occurred,  are  past ;  as,  Philosophers  made  great  discove- 
ries last  century. 

"  Figure  3,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  lines,  illus- 
trates the  Perfect  Tense.  This  tense  embraces  a  period 
of  time  which  is  not  only  connected  with  the  present,  but 
frequently  extends  into  the  future,  as  shown  by  the  first 
line  in  the  figure.  This  period,  as  a  whole,  consists  of 
three  component  parts ; — the  Event  part  marked  E,  is 
past,  the  Speaking  part,  marked  S,  which  is  present,  is  the 
time  occupied  in  uttering  the  sentence,  and  the  Post  speak- 
ing part,  marked  P,  which  is  future,  denotes  that  portion  of 
the  period  of  time  subsequent  to  the  uttering  of  the  sen- 
tence. But  the  period  embraced  by  this  Tense  of  the  verb, 
sometimes  only  approaches  the  Present,  as  shown  by  the 
second  parallel  line ;  this  is  the  case  when  the  speaker 
refers  to  all  the  past  part  of  his  life  ;  as,  "  I  have  7iever  seen 
trees  so  tall." 

This  tense  is  correctly  used  in  speaking  and  writing, 
when  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred,  is 
connected  with  the  Present ;  as,  I  have  studied  hard  this 
weeh 

Figure  4,  which  consists  of  two  liaes  connected,  illus- 
trates the  Pluperfect  tense. 

When  two  past  events  are  connected  in  sense,  the  Plu- 
perfect is  correctly  employed  in  the  prior  past  of  the  two ; 
as,  The  thief  had  eseap-ed  before  the  goods  were  missed. 
That  these  two  are  connected  in  sense,  is  obvious ;  for, 
when  the  former  is  uttered,  the  mind  is  so  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  expectation  of  the  latter,  that  it  is  disap- 
pointed, if  it  is  withheld.  The  thief  had  escaped, — and 
what  else  ?  before  the  goods  were  missed. 

Figure  5,  which  consists  of  a  single  line,  ilkstrates  the 
Future  tense. 

This  shows  that  this  tense  of  the  Verb  denotes  future 
time  simply,  having  no  connection  with  any  other  event  or 


^t  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

time.     This  tense  is  correctly  used  Tvhen  future  time  is 
simply  indicated. 

Figure  6,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illus- 
trates the  Future-Perfect  tense. 

When  two  future  events  are  connected  in  construction, 
this  tense  is  correctly  used  in  the  prior  future  of  these 
two  ;  as,  John  will  have  completed  his  task  by  the  appointed 
time. 

This  tense  is  called  Future-Perfect,  because  the  action 
or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  defore  the  post  future 
event  with  which  it  is  connected. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  da^?  ("lo  space  inclnded  by  the  vertical  linos,  represent?  What  time 
does  the  sy^acc  on  the  left  of  the  -vortical  lines,  represent?  Wbat  doea  thai 
on  the  right  reprepent?    What  does  figure  2a  represent  ? 

ITheu  is  tho  Past  iense  correctly  used  ? 
What  i."  mt  .mt  by  the  event? 

nie  .?;!ial  occurrence  of  the  action,  as  expressed  by 
the  wor  i  77iade  in  the  example. 

What  Vj  period  of  time  f 

By  pci-iod  of  time,  is  meant  that  portion  of  time  in  whicii 
the  event  occurs;  as,  ^' last  Centura/"  in  the  example  re- 
ferred t»'. 

Rem. — The  Teacher  may  ask  similar  questions  on  the 
rest  of  ^'e  Diagram. 


LESSON  XV.      • 

OF  NUMBER  AND  PERSON  OF  VERBS. 
Are  Nr..:.jer  and  Person  dopendetit  or  independent  propertie»  of  ibe  veirb  7 

They  are  depende-ot. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  45 

Why? 

Because  the  verb  depends  upon  its  nominative  for  these 
properties. 

In  order,  then,  to  know  tho  number  and  person  of  the  verb,  to  what  must 
you  look  ? 

■  To  its  nominative. 

lu  what  tonse,  do  the  variations  of  the  verb  principally  take  place? 

In  the  Present. 

"What  are  these  terminations  called  ? 

Thej  are  called  personal  or  verbal. 

What  terminations  does  a  nominative  of  the  second  person,  singular 
solemn  style,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ?  &   ■     » 

T,  sty  or  est ;  as,  Thou  ar^,  thou  lovest,  thou  walkest. 

Does  the  nominative  you  of  the  second  person,  singular,  familiar  style, 
reqaire  the  verb  to  assume  the  same  terminations? 

It  does  not ;  for  the  verb  generally  assumes  the  root  or 
plural  form  ;  as,  John,  where  are  you  ? 

Does  the  verb  ever  assume  the  singular  form  in  such  instances  ? 

Yes  ;  some  good  writers  use  a  verb  of  the  singular  form, 
in  the  Past  tense  with  such  a  nominative;  as,  ''Witness, 
where  ivas  you  standing  during  the  transaction." 

What  terminations  does  a  nominative  of  the  tliird  person,  singular,  famil- 
iar style,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ? 

aS'  or  e;» ;  as.  He  walks.     She  goes. 

What  terminations  does  the  same  nominative,  solemn  style,  require? 

Th  or  eth\  as,  "The  Lord  love^^  the  gates  of  Zion." 
"He  walke^/i  through  dry  places." 

What  does  a  plural  nominative  of  any  person  require  ? 

It  requires  the  verb  to  assume  the  root  or  plural  form ; 
as,  We  love ;  you  love ;  they  love. 

What  effect  does  a  nominative  of  the  first  person  singular  have? 

It  generally  requires  the  verb  to  assume  a  similar  form  ; 
as,  I  love. 

Rem.  1. — When  an  Auxiliary  verb  is  employed,  it  is 
always  varied  instead  of  the  principal  verb ;  as  Thou  canst 
do  it. 


46  York's  illustrative  and 

Rem.  2. — A  nominative  of  the  second  person,  singular, 
solemn  style,  requires  a  verb  in  the  past  tense  to  vary  ; 
as,  Thou  tvalkedst. 

Rem,  3. — The  solemn  style  is  the  style  used  in  the  Bible, 
and  the  familiar  style  is  that  used  in  common  conyersation* 


LESSON  XVI. 

OF  CONJUGATION. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Conjugation  of  a  verb? 

It  is,  literally  speaking,  yoking  the  verb  with  its  nomi- 
native throughout  all  its  Modes,  Tenses,  and  Voices. 

CONJUCxATION   OF   THE  VERB   TO  BE. 

Root.     Be. 

Principal  Parts.. 

Present,  Am  or  be ;  Past,  Was ;  Perf.  Participle,  Been. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

present  tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Person,  I  am.  1st  Person,  We  are. 

2d  Person,     iThouart,  or  2d  Person,     \1.°"!'^' 

'     (You  are.  /  lou  are. 

3d  Person,  lie,  she,  or  it  is.  3d  Person,  They  arc. 

Past  Tense. 


1st  Person,  I  was.  1st  Person,  We  were. 

2^        44        <Thouwast,  or  o^        .*        i  Ye  were, 
^  You  were.  \  You  were 

3d        '*      lie  was.  3d        "      They  were. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  47 

Perfect  Tense.  • 

1  I  have  been.  1  We  have  been, 

0  j  Thou  hast  been,  or  ^     ^  Ye  have  been,  or 
( You  have  been.          ^  *^     \  You  have  been. 

3  He  has  or  hath  been.   *  3  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1  I  had  been,  1  We  had  been, 

0  ^  Thou  hadst  been,  or  ^    5  ^e  had  been,  or 
/  You  had  been.  )  You  had  been. 

3  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

1  I  shall  or  will  be,  1  We  shall  or  will  be, 

c     \  Thou  sh'ilt  or  wilt  be,  or  <,     j  Ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 

^  You  shall  or  will  be.  *^     ^  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3  He  shall  or  will  be.  3  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Future-Perfect  Tense. 

1  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  1  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

C  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,     ^     j  Ye  shall  or  will  have  been,  or 

2  -j or  You   shall   or   will  have     "'    )  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 
(been 

3  He  shall  or  will  have  been.         3  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Indicative  or  Common  Form."^ 

SiN(;uLAR.  Plural. 

1  If  I  am.  1  If  we  are. 

2  3  If  thou  art,  or  9,    \^^  ^^  ^^^'  ^^ 
\  If  you  are.  \  If  you  are. 

3  If  He  is.  3  If  they  are. 

Conjunctive  Form  or  Ellijitical  Fixture. 

1  If  I  be.  I  If  we  be. 

cy    ^  If  thou  be,  or  2    I  ^^  ^^  ^^'  ^^ 

(If  you  be.  \  If  you  be. 

3  If  he  be.  3  If  they  be. 


4S  York's  illustrative  and 

Past  Tknse. 

Common  Form.  ; 

1  If  I  was.  1  If  wc  were. 

^     <  If  thou  wast,  or  2  I   ^^  ^^  were,  or 

/If  you  were.  )    If  von  were. 

3  If  he  was.  3  If  they  were. 

JTypothetic^il  Foinn. 

1  Were  I,  or  if  I  were.  1  Were  wc,  or  if  we  were. 

cf     S  Wert  thou,  or  if  thou  wert,  ^  |  Were  yo,  or  if  ye  were,  or 

)or  Were  you,  or  if  you  were.  *^  /Were  you,   or  if  you  were. 

3  Were  he,  or  if  he  were.  3  Were  they,  or  if  they  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1  If  I  have  been.  1  If  we  have  been. 

2  S  Tf  thou  hast  been,  or  o     ^  ^^  3'^  \\^vg  been,  or 
/  If  you  have  been.  "     )  If  you  have  been. 

3  If  he  hath  or  has  been.  3  If  they  have  been. 


Pluperfect  Tense. 

1  If  I  had  been.  1  If  wc  had  been. 

2  \  If  thou  hadst  been,  or  2    P^  ^'^  ^^^  been,  or 


If  you  had  been.  \  If  you  had  been. 

3  If  he  had  been.  3  If  they  had  been. 


Future  Tense. 

1  If  I  shall  or  will  be.  1  If  we  shall  or  will  be. 

2  ^f  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  or     c)     Uf  ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 
\  If  you  shall  or  will  be.  "^     )  If  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3  If  he  shall  or  will  be.  3  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 


Future-Perfect  Tense. 

1  If  I  shall  or  will  have  been.         1  If  we  shall  or  will  have  been. 
Clf  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  Clf  ye  shall  or  will  have  been, 


been,  or  2    <     or 

you  shall  or  will  have  been.         ( If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 
3  If  he  shall  or  will  have  been.     3  If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 


y 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  4<) 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Indefinite  Tense. — [Present.] 

SiNGULAK.  Plural. 

1  I  may,  can,  or  must  be.  1  We  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

^Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  ^  S  Ye  may,  can  or  must  be,  or 

^    )  AT  ^^'  ^^  '^  )  You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

(You  may,  can,  or  must  be.  3  They  may,  can,  or  must  be. 
3  He  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Indefinite  Tense. — [Past.] 

1  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should    1  "We  might,   could,  would,  or 

be.  should  be. 

f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,         f  Ye  might,  could,  would,  or 

2  .      or  shouldst  be,  or  ]      should  be,  or 

I  You  might,   could,   would,  or     ^    |  You  iniG:ht,  could,  would,  or 
[     should  be.  1      should  be. 

3  He    might,    could,     would,    or    3  They  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be.  should  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been.     1   \Ye  may,   can,  or  must  have 

been, 
r  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must         f  Ye  may,  can,  or  must  have 

2  J      h^^e  been,  or  (      been,  or 

j  You  may,  can,  or  must,  have         1  You  may,  can,  or  must  have 
I     been.  1      been. 

3  He  may,  can,  or  must  have  been.     3  They  may,  can,  or  must  have 

been. 

Pluperfect  Tense.*— [Past  Tense.] 

1  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should    1     We    might,  could,  would,  or 

have  been.  .should  have  been, 

f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst       [Ye  might,   could,    would,   or 

2  J    ^  ^^  shouldst  have  been,  or        ^  j      should  have  been,  or 

I  You  might,  could,  would,  or    ^  j  You  might,  could,  would,  or 
[     should  have  been.  [      .should  have  been. 

3  He  might,  could,  would  or  should    3  They  might,  could,  would,  or 

have  been.  should  have  been. 


*  This  tense  expresses  nothing  more  than  simply  jyast  time ;  con- 
sequently it  is  not  embraced  in  the  definition  given  of  the  Pluperfect 
tense.  As  things  ought  to  be  called  by  their  proper  names,  I  would 
.suggest  the  propriety  of  calling  this  tense  Fast. 


50  York's  illustrative  and 

IMPERATIVE  MODE.  "'   ] 

Presknt*  Tense. — [Futurh.] 
Singular.  Plural. 

o  1  Ppro    i  ^^1  ^^  ^^  thou,  or        p     \  Be,  or  be  ve  or  you,  or 
>a  1  ers.  -j  j^^  ^^^^  ^^  ^    ]  Do  ye  or  you  be. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense,  To  be.  Perfect  Tense,  To  have  been. 

Participles. 

Imperfect,  Being.  Perfect,  Been. 

Pluperfect,  Having  been. 


LESSON  XVII. 


The  Conjugation  of  the  Regular,  Transitive  Verb, 
To  LovK — IN  THE  Active  Voice. 

Root,  Love. 
Principal  Parts,  Love,  loved,  loved. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular, 

Ist  Person.    1  love. 

2(1        "         Thou  lovest,  or  you  love. 

3d        "         He  loveth  or  loves. 


*  This  tense  is  generally  called  Present,  though,  strictly  speaking, 
it  is  Future ;  since,  if  the  event  were  aetually  occurring  at  the  time 
of  command,  it  would  supersede  the  necessity  of  it. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR,  51 

Past  Tense. 


1st  Person 

2d 

3d 

I  loved. 

Thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

He  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

Ist 
2d 
3d 

I  have  loved. 

Thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved. 

He  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1st 
2d 
3d 

a 

I  had  loved. 

Thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved. 

He  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1st 
2d 

I  shall  or  will  love. 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  you  shall 

love. 
3d         "         He  shall  or  will  love. 

Future-Perfect. 

Ist        "         I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2d         "  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you 

shall  or  will  have  loved, 
3d         "         He  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense. 

Common  or  Indicative  Form. 
Singular. 

1st         "  If  I  love. 

2d         "         If  thou  lovest,  or  you  love. 

3d         "         If  he  loveth  or  loves. 


52  york  s  illustrative  and 

Past  Tense. 

1st  Ferson      If  I  loved. 

2d         "         :If  thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

3d  *'        "  If  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1st        "  If  I  have  loved. 

2d|         "         ;  If  thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved. 

3d]         "         .  If  he  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1st         "  If  I  had  loved. 

2d  *'  If  thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved; 

3d  "  If  he  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1st         "  If  I  shall  or  will  love. 

2d         "  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  if  you  will  love. 

3d         "  If  he  shall  or  will  love. 

Futuhe-Perfect  Tense.  ] 

1st        "         If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2d         "  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you  shall 

or  will  have  loved. 
3d  "  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 
Indefinite  Tense.. — [Present.] 

Singular. 

1  I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

cy  j  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  love,  or 

^  \  You  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

3  He  may,  can,  or  must  love. 


-    /T 


coxsteuctive  grammar.  ^^ 

Indefinite  Tense, — [Past.] 

I  might,  could,  would  or  should  love. 

hou  miglitst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  love,  or 
You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 
He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 


1       1  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

,y    j  Thou  mayst,  caast,  or  must  have  loved,  or 

(  You  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 
^       He  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1       I  might,  couid,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

^    f  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  loved- 

(  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 
^       He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 


IMPERITIVB  MODE. 

Present  Tense. — [Future.]] 

2    r  Love  or  love  thou  or  you,  or 
\  Do  thou  or  you  lore. 

iJNFINITIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tense,  To  love.         Perfect  Tense,  To  have  loved. 

Participles. 

Imperfect,    Loving.  Perfect,  Loved. 

Pluperfect,     Having  loved. 

Hem.  1. — Since  the  verb  undergoes  no  variation  to  agre© 
with  a  nominative  in  the  plural,  the  plural  number  has 
been  omitted  in  the  above  conjugation. 

Rem.  2. — The  Passive  voice  is  formed  throuf'hout  all 


54  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

the  Modes  and  Tenses^  hy  prefixiwg  the  variations  of  ibv 
verb  To  Be  to  the  Perfect  Participle  of  a  Transitive  verb  ; 
as,  I  love,  Active ;  I  a?n  loved.  Passive  Voice. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

Formation  of  the  Tenses. 

Tlie  Root  of  the  verb,  as- found  in  the  Infinitive  Present^ 
is  its  simplest  form. 

How  is  the  Past  Tesase  of  Regular  verbs  in  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive 
Modes,  formed  f 

By  annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root;  ag|,  Love,  loved. 

How  is  the  Past  of  Irregular  verbs  formed  .' 

Bj  varying  the  form  of  the  root ;  as,  See,  scnv. 

How  18  the  Perfect  Tense  formed  T 

By  prefixing  have  or  its  variations  to  the  Perfect  Parti- 
ciple ;  as,  Have  loved,  hadst  loved,  hath  or  has  loved. 

How  is  the  Pluperfect  Tense  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  had  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as.  Had 
loved. 

How  is  the  Future  formed? 

]iy  prefixing  shall  or  ivill  to  the  7'oot  of  the  verb ;  as^ 
Shall  or  will  love.     Shall  or  will  see. 

How  is  the  Future- Perfect  formtd? 

By  prefixing  shall  or  will  have  to  the  Perfect  Partici- 
ple ;  as,  Shall  or  will  have  loved.  Shall  or  will  have 
seen. 

How  13  the  so  caJled  Present  Potential  [Indefinite],  formed? 

By  prefixing  maj/,  can,  or  must  to  the  root  of  the  verb  ; 
as,  ma}^  can,  or  must  love. 

How  is  the  I'utentiMl  Past  [Indefinite],  as  it  is  called,  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  might,  could,  would,  or  should  to  the  root ; 
as,  Might,  coukl,  would,  or  should  love. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


55 


Rem. — -Both  of  these  tenses  should  be  called  Indefinite. 

How  is  the  Potential  Perfect  formed  / 

By  prefixing  may^  caUy  or  must  have  to  the  Perfect 
Participle ;  as,  May,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

How  is  the  Potential  Pluperfect  [Past]  formed  / 

By  prefixing  might,  could^  would,  or  should  have  to  the 
Perfect  Participle  ;  as  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  have 
loved. 

How  is  the  Present  Infinitive  formed  .? 

By  prefixing  to  to  the  Root ;  as,  To  love. 

How. is  the  Perfect  Infinitive  formed/ 

By  prefixing  to  have  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as  To 
have  loved. 


LESSON  XIX. 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  A^ERBS, 


Present. 


Past. 


Abide 

abode 

Am  or  Be 

was 

Awake 

awoke,  R 

Bear,  (to  bring 

forth,) 

bore 

Bear,  (to  carry 

.) 

bore 

Beat 

beat 

Begin 

began 

Bend 

.  bent,  R, 

Bereave 

bereft,  R, 

Beseech 

besought 

Bid 

bid,  bade, 

Bind 

bound 

Bite 

bit 

Bleed 

bled 

Blow 

blew 

Perfect  Participle. 

abode 
been 
awaked 
born 
borne 

beaiCn,  beat 
•  begun 
bent 

bereft,  R, 
besought 
bidden,   bid 
bound 
bitten,  bit 
bled 
blew 


*  Those  verbs  whose  Past  tense  and  Perfect  Partii  iple  are  followed 
by  R,  have  also  a  regular  form ;  as,  Awake  or  awaited. 


56 


YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  A5D 


Prksbnt. 


Past 


Break 

broke  n 

Breed 

bred 

Bring 

brought 

Build 

built,  R, 

Burn 

burnt,  R, 

Buret 

burst 

Buy 

bought 

Cast 

cast 

Catch 

caught,  R, 

Chide 

chid 

Choose 

chose 

Cleave,  (to  adhere,). 

cleaved 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

clove,  cleft, 

Cling 

clung 

Clothe 

clad,  R, 

Come 

came 

Cost 

cost 

Creei> 

crept 

Crow 

crew,  R, 

Cut 

eut 

Dare 

durst 

Deal 

dealt,  R, 

Dig 

dug,  R, 

Do 

did 

Draw 

drew 

Dream 

dreamt,  R^ 

Drink 

drank 

Drive 

drove 

Dwell 

dwelt 

EftI 

ate,  eat. 

mi 

fell 

Feed 

fed 

Peel 

felt 

^iglvt 

fought 

find 

found 

Flee 

fled 

Fling 

flung 

Fly 

flew 

Forsake 

forsook 

Freeze 

froze 

Freight 

freighted 

Get 

got 

Gild 

gilt,  R, 

Gird 

girt,  R, 

Give 

gave 

<jio 

went 

erave 

graved 

Grind 

ground 

Grow 

grew  J 

Pbrfect  Participle. 

broken 

bred 

brought 

built 

burnt,  R, 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R, 

chidden,  chid, 

chosen 

cleaved 

cloven 

clung 

clad,  R, 

come 

cost 

crept 

crowed 

cut 

dared 

dealt,  R, 

dug,  R, 

done 

drawn 

dreamt,  R, 

drunk,  drank^ 

driven 

dwelt 

eaten 

fallen 

led 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flown 

forsaken 

frozen 

fraught,  R, 

got,  gotten 

gilt,  R, 

girt,  R, 

given 

gone 

graven,  R, 

ground 

grown 


CONSTRUCTIVB   GRAMMAR. 


67 


Present. 

Hang 
Have 
Hear 
Heave 
Hew 
Hide 
Hit 
Hold 
Hurt 
Keep 
Kneel 
Knit 
Know 
Lade 
Lay 
Lead 
Leave 
Lend 
Let 

Lie,  (to  recline,) 
Light 
Load 
Lose 
Make 
Mean 
Meet 
Mow- 
Pay 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Put 

Quit 

Read 

Rend 

Rid 

Ride 

Ring 

Rise 

Rive 

Run 

Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Seethe 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Sit 

Shake 

Shape 


Past. 


Pbrfet  Participle 


hung 

hung 

had 

had 

heard 

heard 

hove,  R, 

hoven,  R, 

hewed 

hewn 

hid 

hidden,  hid, 

hit 

hit 

held 

held 

hurt 

hurt 

kept 

kept 

knelt,  R, 

knelt,  R, 

knit,  R, 

knit,  R, 

knew 

known 

laded 

laden 

laid 

laid 

l«d 

led 

left 

l€ft 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

lay 

lain 

lit,  R, 

lit^R, 

loaded 

laden,  R, 

lost 

lost 

made 

made 

meant 

meant 

met 

met 

mowed 

mown 

paid 

paid 

pent,  R, 

pent,R, 

put 

put 

quit,   R, 

quit,  R, 

read 

read 

rent 

rent 

rid 

rid 

rode 

ridden 

rang,  rung, 

rung 

rose 

risen 

rived 

riven 

ran 

run 

sawed 

sawn,  R, 

said 

said 

saw 

seen 

sought 

sought 

sod.  R, 

sodden 

sold 

sold 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

sat 

sat 

shook 

shaken 

shaped 

ehapen,  R, 

58 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect  Participle. 


Shave 

shaved 

shaven 

Shear 

she  red 

shorn 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone 

shone 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Show 

showed 

shown 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shrink 

shrank,  shrunk, 

shrunk 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang,  sung, 

sung 

Sink 

sank,  sunk, 

sunk 

Slay 

slew, 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

Sling- 

slung 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  R, 

Smite 

smote 

smitten 

Sow,  (to  scatter,) 

sowed 

sown,  R, 

Speak 

spoke 

spoken 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spell 

spelt,  R, 

spelt,  R, 

Spen  I 

spent 

spent 

Spill 

spilt,  R, 

spilt,  R, 

Spin 

spun 

spun 

Spit 

spit 

spit 

Spread 

spread. 

spread 

Spring 

sprang,  sprung. 

sprung 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

String 

strung 

strung 

Stride 

stroile,  strid, 

stridden 

Strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken, 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strow,  or  strew, 

slrowed  or  strewed 

strown,  or  strewn 

Swear 

swore 

sworn 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen,  R, 

Swim 

swam,  swum, 

swum 

S*ing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

throve 

thriven 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Ttjrow 

threw 

thrown 

09NSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAl^ 


D<i 


Present. 

Tread 
Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Wet 

Whet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 


Past. 

-trod 

waxed 

wore 

wove 

wept 

wet,  R, 

whet,  R, 

won 

wound 

•wrought,  R, 

wrung 

wrote 


Perfect  Participle. 

trodden,  trod, 
waxea,  R, 
worrR 
woven 
wept 
wet,  R, 
whet,  R, 
won 
wound 
wrought,  R, 
wrung 
written. 


MODEL, 

■"Jesus  went  unto  tbo  Mount  of  Olives." 

Went  is  an  Irregular  Intransitive  verb,  of  the  Indica- 
u\e  Mode,  Past  tense,  and  of  the  third  person,  s^nguhar 
number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  Jesits,  accciding  t« 
rule  60 

Why  is  went  a  Terb  f 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms. 

Why  Irregular? 

Because  it  forms  its  Past  Tense  and  Perfect  Participle, 
by  varying  the  form  of  the  root. 

Why  Intransitive? 

Because  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  object. 

Why  in  the  Indicative  Mctde? 

Because  it  afiirms  positively  and  without  limitation. 
Why  in  the  Past  Tense  / 

Because  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  eveat  -occurred^ 
is  wholly  past. 

Why  oi  the  third  person,  singular.' 

Because  its  nominative  Jcmis  is  of  the  third  person, 
^singular. 


mo  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


EXERCISES. 


The  sun  shines  upon  the  floor.  Joseph  went  with  hi» 
brother.  Thomas  has  returned.  James  had  lost  his  book 
before  he  left  school.  Those  ladies  will  return  soon.  He 
will  have  completed  his  task  bj  the  time  appointed.  If 
Henrj  stndj,  he  will  improve.  If  thou  hadst  been  here, 
he  would  not  have  gone.  He  may  go,  if  he  v>  ill  return 
to-morrow.  I  may  have  said  it.  The  work  might  hav* 
•been  done  better.  He  would  not  go.  He  went  into  th« 
field,  to  seek  treasure.  He  ought  to  have  gone  sooner. — 
Obey  my  precepts,  if  you  wish  to  learn.  Take  heed  to 
your  ways.  Walk  not  in  the  way  of  bad  men.  Keep  your 
heart  with  all  diligence.  Tarry  not  at  the  w;nc.  He  has 
no  time  to  lose.  Have  they  returned  ?  Can  Mary  attend 
the  wedding  ?     It  is  I ;  be  not  afraid. 


LESSON  XX. 

OF   PARTICIPLE. 


What  Is  a  Participle  t 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also,  of  an  adjective,  but  de- 
pends upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  con&truction. 

How  do  Participles  partake  of  tbp  itature  of  the  verb? 

They,  like  verbs,  express  action  ;  as,  I  see  a  man  walk- 
ing. 

In  what  respect,  do  tbey  partake  of  tbo  nature  of  adjectives  ? 

In  limiting  the  noun  or  pronoun  on  which  they  drpend. 
For  instance,  in  the  sentence,  "I  see  a  man  walking," 
walking  not  only  exp)es^es  the  action  of  man,  1  ut,  also, 
limits  man  like  an  adjective. 

How  many  Participles  have  verbs? 

Three,  viz  :  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  61 

How  is  the  Imporfect  Participle  formed  ? 

By  annexing  ing  to  the  Koot  of  the  verb ;  as,  Love, 
loving. 

Rem. — ^When  the  verb  ends  in  e,  on  receiving  the  suffix 
ing^  the  e  is  dropped.  (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive 
Grammar,  Rules  for  Spelling.) 

IVhy  is  the  Participle  ending  in  ing,  called  Imperfect? 

Because  the  action  Tvhich  it  expresses,  is  unfinished. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Participle  formed  ? 

When  derived  from  a  regular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  an- 
nexing d  or  ed  to  the  Root;  as,  Love,  loved ;  but,  when 
derived  from  an  Irregular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  varying 
the  form  of  the  Root ;  as,  See,  seen. 

Why  is  this  Participle  called  Perfect? 

Because  it  denotes  -a  finished  state  of  the  action  or  ver- 
bal denotement. 

How  is  the  Pluperfect  Participle  formed? 

By  prefixing  having  to  the  Perfect  Participle  ;  as,  seen, 
having  seen. 

Why  is  it  called  Pluperfect. 

Because  it  denotes  more  than  the  Perfect. 

Rem. — The  Pluperfect  Participle  not  only  denotes  . 
finished  state  of  the  action  or  verbal  denotement-,  but, 
also,  as  completed  before  the  time  indicated  by  i--.  -.  princi- 
pal verb  of  the  sentence,  with  vhich  it  is  assooi;- ;  u  ;  as, 
He  having  written  a  letter,  mnilpd  it.  (For  a  full  display 
of  tlie  Participle,  see  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grram- 
mar.) 

MODEL. 

The  old  fox  heard  the  hunter's  horn  sounding. 

Sounding  is  an  Imperfect  Participle,  derived  from  the 
verb  to  sounds  and  refers  to  horn^  according  to  Rule  18. 

Why  is  soundirg  a  Participle? 

Because  it  is  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes  of  th 
nature  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective. 


62  York's  illustrative  and 

Why  is  it  Imperfect? 

Because  the  action  wliicli  it  expresses,  is  unfinished,  still 
going  on. 

Why  i»  it  said  to  refer  to  horn  ? 

Because  it  depends  upon  it  in  construction. 

EXERCISES. 

I  see  an  eagle  flying.  The  hnnters  heard  the  young 
dog  b;iil%ing.  James  has  completed  the  task  given  him. 
The  young  ladies,  having  written  the  letter,  dispatched  it. 
The  stranger  saw  the  desert  thistle  bending  there  its  lonely 
head.  The  General  having  completed  the  conquest,  re- 
turned in  triumph.  Jesus  seeing  the  multitude,  went  up 
into  a  mountain.  The  house,  erected  on  yonder  rising 
ground,  drew  me  from  the  road.  I  see  a  man  beating  his 
horse. 


LESSON  XXL 


PRONOUNS    OR   SUBSTITUTES. 
What  is  a  I*ron  )un  ? 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  si  noun,  and  gene- 
rally to  avoid  its  repetition  ;  as,  Ilenv^  is  a  good  student, 
and  he  learns  very  fast. 

Re  . —  You  perceive  that  he,  in  this  sentence,  stnnds  for 
the  noun  or  name  Henry,  and,  also,  avoids  its  repetition, 
thereby  ai.iking  language  more  concise  and  elegant. 

How  rn.iv   r'runouna  be  divided? 

Into  ivo  classes,  viz:  Personal  and  Relative,  or  Con- 
nective. 

How  aro   ;.;n;onal  pronouns  distinguished  from  the  Rela  iv«? 

Personal  pronouns  have  a  form  to  show  their  own  ^er- 
8on ;  j>.,  litives  have  not. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  63 

How  many  Personal  pronouns  are  there  ? 

There  are  fiv^e,  viz :  7,  thou  or  you^  he  she,  and  it,  and 
their  plurals,    We,  ye  or  you,  and  they. 

What  belong  to  Pronouns? 

As  Pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  they  must  have  the  same 
properties,  viz :  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 

Which  of  the  Pronouns  are  varied  to  express  Gender? 

Those  of  the  third  person,  singular,  viz:  He,  mascu- 
line ;  She,  feminine,  and  It,  neuter. 

Why  are  not  Pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persona,  varied  to  express 
Gonder? 

Because  the  speaker  and  person  addressed,  are  supposed 
to  be  present ;  consequently  their  Gender  known  ;  but,  as 
the  third  person  may  be  absent  or  unknown  to  the  person 
addressed,  it  is  varied  to  express  gender. 

How  many  Persons  have  pronouns? 

Tliree;  first,  second,  and  third;  Jand?/;c  are  first  per- 
son, thou  or  you  and  ye  or  you  are  second,  and  he,  she,  it, 
and  they,  third. 

Wb't  does  the  person  of  Pronouns  represent  or  denote  ? 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker,  the  second,  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  to  or  addressed,  and  the  third,  the 
persons  or  things  spoken  of  or  about. 


LESSON. 


OF  DECLENSION. 
Do   Pronouns  have  a  form  to  show  their  case  ? 

Moot  of  them  have. 

W    ;     18  this  variat.il  a  of  form,  to  show  c.u^e,  called? 

It  is  called  Declension. 

Whiii  dix  s  Declension  mcaii  ? 

It  meaas  to  bend  from,  i  c,  the  Possessive  and  Objec- 
tive cases  generally  huva  forms  different  from  the  nomina- 
tive, as  illustrated  in  the  lollowiug  Diagram  : 


64 


York's  illustrative  and 


DECLENSION    OF  PRONOUNS. 


FIRST  PERSON 


Possessive. 
MY  or  MINE- 
our 


SECOND 


YOUR- 

your — 


Nominative. 

Singular. 
i 


Plural. 
—  we  — 


PERSON,  Famili 

Singular. 
YOU 


Plural. 


SECOND 
niY  or  THINE- 
your- 


PERSON,  Solemn 

Singular. 

THOU 


THIRD 


HIS- 


you 


Objective. 
ME, 


-us. 


AK  Style. 
YOU 


Style. 


-you. 


Plural. 
ye — 


PERSON — Masc 
Singular. 
„  HE 


-TH^E, 

-you. 


uline. 


rheir- 

HER 
Their 


Plural. 
Tl.ey- 


THIRD  PERSON— -Femi 
Singular. 
SHE 


THIRD 


ITS 


Their 


Plural. 
-Thoy- 


PERSON — Neu 
Singular. 

:iT 


HIM 


Tlun-!, 

nine. 


■HER, 

-Them. 


TER. 


Plural. 
-They— 


-IT, 
-Tliciii. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  65 

By  examining  the  Diagram,  it  will  be  perceived  that  the 
Nominative  is  written  in  the  middle  column,  the  Posses- 
sive on  the  left,  and  the  Objective  on  the  right.  The  Pos- 
sessive and  Objective  cases  are  written  at  the  ends  of  linea, 
forming  right  angles  with  the  middle  column,  showing  that 
the  most  of  them  have  a  form,  and  all  of  them  a  meaning 
different  from  the  Nominative. 

In  declining,  as  exhibited  in  the  Diagram,  the  pupils 
will  take  it  up  in  the  following  order :  Nominative  I ;  Pas- 
sive my  or  mine ;  Objective  me,  &c. 

MODEL. 
"  Henry  is  a  good  student,  and  he  learns  very  fast." 

He  is  a  Personal  Pronoun,  Masculine  Gender,  third 
person,  singular,  agreeing^  with  its  antecedent  Henry^ 
according  to  rule  12,  (repeat) ;  and  in  the  nominative  caso 
to  the  vprb  learns  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Why  is  he  a  Pronoun  ? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Why  a  Personal  pr«noan? 

Because  it  has  a  form  to  show  its  person. 

Why  of  tho  Mascaline  gender,  third  person^  singolarf 

Because  its  antecedent  Henry  is. 

Why  in  the  Nominatire  case  f 

Because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  Us  own  memW. 

EXERCISES. 

Mary  walked  with  her  sister.  I  saw  a  man  walking 
with  his  brother.  My  friends  visit  me  very  often.  Charles 
has  lost  his  knife.  Thou  hast  seen  my  friend.  Blot  out 
all  mine  iniquities.  We  leave  your  forests  of  beasts.  You 
are  happy ;  because  you  are  good.  I  will  fear  no  evil ; 
for  thou  art  with  me. 


^6  York's  illustrated  and 


LESSON  XXIII. 

OF   RELATIVE    OR   CONNECTIVB   PRONOUNS. 
What  are  Relative  Pronouns  1 

They  rel<ate  to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  called 
the  antecedent ;  as,  The  boy  zvho  studies,  will  improve. 

Do  not  many  of  the  Pergonal  pronouns,  also,  relate  to  antecedents  1 

They  do. 

Then,  in  what  respect,  do  Relative  pronouns  differ  from  Personal  * 

They  have  no  form  to  show  their  person,  and  they  con- 
nect clauses  like  connective  adverbs;  and  this  is  the  rea- 
son they  are  sometimes  called   Connective  pronouns. 

What  .vords  are  used  rs  Relatives/ 

Whoj  which,  and  that. 

To  what  is  loho  applied  1 

Who  is  applied  to  persons  and  rational  beings;  as,  The 
boy  who  studies,  will  improve. 

To  what  is  which  applied? 

Which  is  now  applied  to  brutes  and  things  ;  as,  The  bird 
which  sung  so  sweetly,  has  flown. 

To  what  is  that  applied  f 

That  is  applied  to  any  thing  whether  rational  or  irra- 
tional, animate  or  inanimate  ;  as.  They  that  sow  in  tears, 
shall  reap  in  joy.     The  things  that  I  hate,  ye  do. 

Which  of  the  Relatives  iire  declinable  .' 

Who  and  what,  are  sometimes  called  its  compounds, 
whoever,  ivhosoever,  &c. ;  as,  Nominative  Who,  Possessive 
Whose,  Objective  Whom. 

Are  which  and  that  declinable  .' 

They  are  not,  except  whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the 
possessive  case  of  which  instead  of  the  phrase  "  of  which ;" 
as,  ^^  The  fruit  of  that  forbidden  tree,  tvhose  mortal  taste 
brought  death,  &c,"  i.  e.,  the  mortal  taste  of  which  brought 
death. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  67 


LESSON  XXIY. 

OP   WHOEVER,    WHICHEVER,   WHAT. 

What  are  such  words  as  whoever,  ichichever,  and  ichat  generally  called  f 

They  are  generally  called  Compound  Relativo  Pro- 
nouna* 

Is  this  an  appropriate  name? 

We  think  not:  since  whoever  and  zvhosoever  re^Qv,  like 
ather  Relatives,  to  some  antecedent  expressed  or  under- 
stood, but  generally  understood,  since  their  antecedents 
are  very  indefinite ;  as,  "  whosoever  will  be  a  friend  of  the 
world,  is  an  enemy  of  God,"  i.  e.,  Re  is  an  enemy  ol  God, 
whosoever  will  be  a  friend  of  the  world.  And,  as  to  ivhat, 
whatever^  and  ivhichcver,  they  are  specifying  adjectives,  or 
substitutes,  belonging  to  some  noun  expressed  or  under- 
stood ;  as,  I  like  what  you  dislike,  i.  e.,  I  like  what  ^hing 
you  dislike.  Whatever  is,  is  right,  L  e,  \_Whatevc?'  thing 
{which  is),  is  right.]  Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern 
pleases  her  best,  i.  e.,  [Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern] 
(which  pleases  her  best),  which  being  understood. 

What  are  those  pronouns,  used  in  asking  questions,  called? 

They  are  generally  called  Interrogative  pronouns ;  they 
are  who,  what,  and  which. 

Rem. — Of  these,  who  only  is  properly  an  Interrogative 
pronoun  ;  since  which  and  tvhat  belong  to  some  ruui,  ex- 
pressed or  understood ;  as,  which  way  shall  I  fly  ?  What 
is  that  ?  ?*.  e.,  what  person  or  thing  is  that  ?  What  book 
have  you  ? 

Rem.  1 — Since  Relative  pronouns  have  no  form  to  show 
their  gender,  person,  and  number,  you  must  look  to  their 
antecedents,  in  order  to  know  these  properties. 

Rem.  2 — Interrogatives  are  said  to  agree  in  case  with 
their  subsequent ;  as,  Who  wrote  that  ?     John. 

MODEL  I. 

The  boy  who  studies  his  lessons,  will  improve. 


d8  York's  illustrative  and 

Who  is  a  Relative  pronoun,  of  the  masculine  gender, 
third  per.^on,  singular,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  6ay, 
according  to  Rule  12,  and  nominative  case  to  studieiy  ac- 
cording to  Rule  1. 

Why  is  who  a  Pronoan  ? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Why  a  Relative  ? 

Because  it  not  only  relates  to  an  ancedent,  but  it  has  no 
form  to  show  its  Gender,  Person,  or  Number. 

EXERCISES. 

The  young  lady  who  instructs  me,  labors  faithfully. — 
This  is  the  tree  which  produces  no  fruit.  Taey  that  sow 
in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy.  The  boy  whom  I  teach,  learna 
well.     The  hat  which  Henry  lost,  has  been  found. 

MODEL  2. 

I  heard  what  was  said. 

What  is  a  specifying  adjective,  and  belongs  to  thinp 
"noeton"  [understood];  or  thus,  what  is  a  substitute  for 
tahat  thing,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  heard^ 
acoording  to  Rule  19. 

Rem. —  Which,  in  this  and  all  similar  constructions,  b 
noeton  [understood].  The  sentence,  rendered  plenary, 
will  read  thus,  [I  heard  what  thing]  (which  was  said.) 

EXERCISES. 

Henry  took  what  he  wanted.  Mary  took  what  Eliza 
left.  I  heard  what  was  alleged  on  both  sides.  Whatever 
purifies  the  heart,  also  fortifies  it.  George  may  pursue 
whatever  science  suits  his  taste.  Whatever  is  true  in  sci^ 
cncc,  is  useful  in  the  arts. 

MODEL  S. 

Who  art  thou  ?     The  minister. 


€ONSTR»e!rrVE  (©(RAMMAR.  69 

WTko  is  an  Interrogative  pronoun,  agreeing  in  gender, 
person,  and  number  with  its  subsequent  minister,  and  is  in 
the  nominative  case,  predicated  of  the  subject  thou,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  2. 

Rem. — If  the  subsequent  is  not  expressed,  or  the  an- 
swer to  the  question  not  given,  the  gender,  person,  and 
number  of  the  Interrogative  cannot  be  determined. 

EXERCISES. 

Who  hid  Johri'«  hat  ?  With  whom  did  you  walk  ?  Who 
wrote  that?  Which  route  did  he  take  ?  What  book  have 
you  ?  A  Poem.  What  have  I  done  ?  What  think  ye  of 
€hrist? 


I.ESSON  xxy, 

OF  THE   ARTICLE. 
Wtat  ifl  an  Article  t 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns,  to  liaait  the  6X* 
lent  of  their  signification ;  as,  Th<&u  art  the  aaaa. 

How  many  Articles  are  there  ? 

Two^  A  or  an  and  The, 

What  is  The  called  ? 

It  is  .called  the  Befimte  article,  aasrd  bekags  to  nouns  of 
iboth  numbers. 

What  is  A  or  An  called  t 

A  or  An  is  called  the  Indefinite  article,  .and  belongs  to 
jiouns  of  the  siaagular  aumtber. 

When  should  an  >be  used? 

It  should  be  '^sed  before  words  commencing  with  a  vowel 
itoundy  and,  also.,  before  words  commencing  with  A,  when  the 
accent  is  on  the  second  syllable ;  as,  An  aooran;  aK>  hour; 
<m  historic  account. 
6 


To  York's  illustrative  aisd 

Rem. — Though  h  is  used  in  the  word  hour^  yet  it  has 
no  sound  ;  consequently  the  first  sound  is  a  vowel  sound. 

When  ghould  A  be  used  / 

It  should  be  used  before  all  v/ord*  commencing  Tvith  a 
consonant  sound,  except  those  commencing  with  A,  accented 
on  the  second  syllable  ;  as,  A  man.     A  useful  book. 

Rem. — Though  the  word  useful  commences  with  the 
vowel  u,  yet  the  first  sound  heard,  is  that  of  the  conso- 
nant y. 

Since  the  Article  belongs  to  nouns,  might  it  not  be  called  a  Specifying 
Adjective  ? 

It  might  be  so  called ;  and  those  who  prefer  parsing  it 
m  such,  are  sustained  by  good  authority. 

Do  Articles  belong  to  any  other  words  besides  nouns? 

In  some  peculiar  constructions,  the  definite  article  is 
said  to  belong  to  adverbs  and  adjectives  in  the  compara- 
tive and  superlative  degrees ;  as,  The  more  I  examine  it,. 
the  better  I  like  it.  The  deejyer  the  well,  the  colder,  the 
water. 

Rem. — The,  in  such  constructions,  is  not,  philosophi- 
ceJly  speaking,  an  article,  but  an  adverb  or  secondary  ad- 
jective.    (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

MODEL. 

Solomon  was  a  wise  man. 

A  is  the  Indefinite  Article,  and  belongs  to  the  noun 
man,  according  to  Rule  13. 

I'l'hy  ij  o  an  Article  ? 

Because  it  limits  a  noun. 

Why  is  it  the  Indefinite  Article  ? 

Because  it  limits  the  noun  with  respect  to  number,  or 
points  it  out  indefinitely. 

Why  is  a  used  in  this  example,  instead  of  an  ? 

Because  it  is  placed  before  a  word  commencing  with  » 
CfnsonaQt  sound. 


CONSTRUOTIVE  GRAMMAR.  71 

EXERCISES. 

Washington  was  a  man  of  prudence.  The  boy  learns 
well.  The  girl  has  a  useful  book.  That  book  is  a  Poem. 
He  is  fond  of  an  English  author.  The  day  glides  sweetly. 
She  is  a  beautiful  lady. 


LESSON  XXVI. 

OF  ADJECTIVES   OR   ATTRIBUTES. 
Wbat  is  an  Adjective  ? 

An  A.djectire  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  to 
express  its  quality,  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  A  good  man. 
That  book. 

Into  how  many  classes,  then,  may  Adjeotires  ba  divided? 

They  may  be  divided  into  two,  viz  :  Qualifying  and  Spec- 
ifying. 

What  are  Qualifying  Adjectives? 

Qualifying  Adjectives  express  the  quality  of  the  nouns 
or  pronouns  to  which  they  are  joined ;  as.  Young  ladies. 
Tall  trees. 

Do  Qualifying  Adjectives  limit  the  meaning  of  nouns  as  well  as  express 
their  quality  ? 

They  do  ;  for  young  and  tall,  in  the  above  examples, 
limit  ladies  and  trees  to  a  less  number  than  simply  ladies 
and  trees  ;  since  all  ladies  are  not  young,  nor  are  all  trees 
talL    (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

Are  Adjectives  varied  ? 

They  are  varied  only  to  express  the  degrees  of  compar- 
ison. 

How  many  Degrees  of  Conaparison  are  there'? 

Adjectives  generally  have  three  Degrees  of  Comparison, 
viz:  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative- 

What  does  the  Positive  degree  expresj  ? 

It  expresses  an  indirect  comparison ;  as,  when  we  say 


72  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

"that  man  is  tall,"  we  can  only  know  this  by  comparing 
him  with  the  general  height  of  men,  and  finding  that  he 
exceeds  it. 

What  does  tbe  Cnmparative  degree  express? 

It  expresses  a  direct  comparison  between  ttoo  objects  or 
classes  of  objects ;  as,  James  is  taller  than  Henry.  Eve 
y^sis  fairer  than  any  of  her  daughters. 

What  does  the  Superlative  express  1 

It  expresses  a  direct  comparison  of  several  objects ;  as, 
That  ip  the  tallest  tree  in  the  forest. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

FORMATION  OF  THE  DEGREES. 

How  are  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  of  Monosyllabic  a4« 
j^otives  generally  formed  ? 

They  are  formed  by  annexing  r  or  er  to  the  Positive,  te 
form  the  Comparative,  and  st  or  est  to  the  Positive,  to 
form  the  Superlative ;  as.  Positive,  wise :  Com.  wiser ; 
Sup.  wisest. 

D«  any  other  adjectivee  admit  of  these  terminations  f 

Yes,  such  dissyllabic  adjectives  as  end  in  y  or  le^  and, 
aJso,  sui?h  as  have  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  admit 
similar  terminations;  as,  Holy,  holier,  hoWest,  Able, 
abler,  able«^.     Polite,  polii*r,  politest. 

How  are  other  adjectives  generally  compared  ? 

By  prefixing  more  and  most,  less  and  hast  to  the  Posi* 
tive ;  as,  Beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful.  Beau* 
tiful,  less  beautiful,  and  least  beautiful. 

Do  adjectives  ever  admit  of  more  than  three  degrees  of  comparison? 

Such  adjectives  as  are  expressive  of  color  and  taste, 
generally  admit  of  four  degrees ;  viz  :  Imperfect,  Positive^ 
Comparative,  and  Superlative ;  as,  Imperfect,  Brownish, 
brown,  browner,  brownest. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  73 

Eew. — The   Imperfect  degree  expresses  a  degree   of 
quality  inferior  to  the  Positive. 

The  Degrees  of  Comparison  are  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing Diagram. 


Figure  1  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  Positive,  or  Com- 
parison ascending ;  as,  Positive,  Wise ;  Comparative,  wiser ; 
Superlative,  wisest. 

Figure  2  illustrates  diminution  of  the  Positive,  or  Com* 
parison  descending  ;  as,  P»  Wise ;  C.  less  loise  \  S.  least 
ivise. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  comparison  of  such  adjectives 
as  hfi\e  four  degrees  ;  as  Imperfect,  Greenish  ')  P.  green ; 
C.  greener ;  S.  greenest. 

It  will  be  perceived  by  inspecting  the  Diagram,  that  the 
Superlative  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of 
quality  ;  the  lines  S****  S^  in  Figures  1  and  2,  make 
these  extremes. 

Rem.  1 — Some  adjectives  are  Secondary  or  Helping^ 
and  qualify  other  adjectives  ;  as,  Pale  red  lining.  A  very 
old  man. 

Rem*  % — Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  forming  the 
degrees  of  comparison  ;  as,  G-ood,  better^  best* 

MODEL. 

A  prudent  man  foreseeth  the  evil* 

Prudent  is  a  Qualifying  Adjective,  in  the  Positive  de- 


74  York's  illustrative  a-sb 

grec,  and  belongs  to  77iaji,  according  to  Rule  15.  Com- 
pared, Positive  prude7it,  Com.  more  prudent ^  Sup.  most 
prudent. 

Why  is  prudent  an  Adjective  ? 

Because  it  is  added  to  a  noun. 

"Why  Qualifjing? 

Because  it  expresses  the  quality  of  the  noun  man  to 
which  it  is  attached. 

Why  in  the  Positive  degree? 

Because  it  expresses  an  indirect  comparison. 
EXERCISE?. 

[You  may  now  parse  and  compare  all  the  adjectives  in  the  following  Een- 
teD0«>8,  as  exhibited  in  the  above  Model.] 

Washington  was  a  prudent  man.  A  good  man  is  a  great 
man.  Solomon  was  the  wiset  man.  'Ud  age  should  be 
respected.  Martha  is  m„ore  beautiful  than  her  sister.  Pe- 
ter is  taller  than  James.  He  bought  a  piece  of  dark  brown 
cloth.  A  very  industrious  man  acquires  property.  A 
very  good  pen  writes  well. 

/ 


LESSON  XXVIII. 


SrECIFYIKG   OR   LIMITING   ADJECTIVES. 
How  do  Siiccifyiny  Adjectives  point  out  nouns  ? 

They  point  out  nouns  by  some  distinct  specification^  but 
do  not  express  quality  ;  as,  Every  man.     Some  womeiu 

Do  Specifying  Adjectives  ever  belong  to  nouns? 

They  do,  though  not  frequently ;  as,  "  A  good  under- 
etanding  have  all  they  that  fear  the  Lord." 

Are  Specifying  Adjectives  ever  used  as  Substitutes  ? 

They  are  frequently  so  used ;  as,  He  came  unto  his  ozom, 
but  his  own  received  him  not,  ^.  e,  he  came  unto  his  own 
nation,  &c. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  75 

Into  fcew  many  classes  may  Specifying  Adjectives  be  divided/ 

Into  seven ;  viz .: 

1st.  Distributive ;  as,  Eacli^  every,  either,  neither, 
2cl.  Demonstrative  ;  as,  This,  that,  these,  those,  yonder, 
3d.  Indefinite  ;  as.  All,  such,  some. 
4th.  Interrogative;  as,    What,  ivhich. 
5th.  Numeral ;  as,  One,  tivo,  twenty,  &c. 
6th.  Ordinal ;  as,  First,  second,  third,  &c, 
7th.  Circumstantial ;  as.  An  Arabian  horse.     A  desert 
thistle,  &c.     (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

MODEL. 

^^  Every  man  helps  a  little." 

Every  is  a  Specifying  Adjective,  and  belongs  to  man, 
according  to  Rule  15. 

Why  is  every  an  -Adjective? 

Because  it  is  added  to  a  noun. 

Why  Specifying  or  limiting  ? 

Because  it  limits  the  meaning  of  the  noun  without  ex- 
pressing quality. 

EXERCISES. 

Some  me»  are  not  wise.  All  men  are  mortal.  Each 
individual  fills  a  space  in  creation.  Three  ladies  walked 
into  the  garden.  Adam  was  the  first  man.  Those  young 
ladies  are  handsome.  This  man  is  unhappy.  That  day 
w  as  hot.  All  great  men  are  not  wise.  Some  men  labor, 
others  do  not.  All  we,  like  sheep,  have  gone  astray.  He 
has  an  Arabian  horse.  Demosthenes  was  an  Athenian 
Orator.     Jefferson  was  an  American  citizen. 


LESSON  XXIX. 


ADVERBS   OR   MODIFIERS. 
WhtiX  is  an  Adverb,  or  Modifier  / 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 


T6  TORK'ff  ILLUSTRA'PrVK  AND 

verbs,  participles,  adjectives  or  other  adverbs;  as,  She 
walks  gracefully.  I  see  a  cloud  moving  slowly.  A  VERY 
good  pen  writes  extremely  tvell. 

Rem. — It  would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  call  those  Ad- 
verbs which  modify  Adjectives,  Secondary  or  Heljnng  Ad- 
jectives ;  since  they  limits  nouns  or  pronouns  indirectly 
through  the  medium  of  the  Adjectives  which  they  limit 
directly.  We  would,  also,  suggest  the  propriety  of  call- 
ing such  Adverbs  as  modify  other  Adverbs,  Secondary  or 
Selping  Adverbs. 

Into  how  many  classes,  may  Adverbs  be  divided  ? 

Though  Adverbs  express  a  great  variety  of  meaning  and 
shades  of  meaning,  yet  the  principal  Adverbs  may  be  in- 
cluded in  four  classes  ;  viz  :  Time,  place,  cause,  and  man- 
ner. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  2^lace  answer  ? 

To  the  questions  where,  whither,  whence ;  as,  Where', 
there,  above,  &c. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  time  answer  ? 

To  the  questions  ivhen,-  ho^v  long,  hoiv  often }  as.  Then, 
yesterday,  often,  &c. 

To  what  questions,  do  Adverbs  of  cause  answer? 

They  answer  to  the  questio:;'!®'  wh'^,  wherefore ;  a^^^  W%, 
wherefore,  therefore,  &c. 

To  what  question,  do  Adverbs  of  manner  answer  ? 

They  answer  to  the  question  hoiv  ;  as.  Elegantly,  faith- 
fully, fairly,  &c. 

MODEL. 

The  day  glides  sweetly. 

Sweetly  is  an  Adverb,  and  modifies  the  verb  glides,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  25. 

Why  is  Sweetly  an  adverb  ? 

Because  it  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  verb  glides. 


COlfSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  7T 

Iq  modifying  the  meaning  of  the  verb  glides,  what  doeff  ^  point  out  f 

It  points  out  the  manner  of  its  action. 

To  what  class,  then,  does  it  belong  / 

It  belongs  to  the  class  of  Manner, 

EXERCISES. 

The  river  flows  rapidly.  The  bird  flies  swiftly.  He  is 
thert.  Where  is  Thomas  ?  Why  do  you  delay  ?  ^^The 
lowering  clouds  move  slowly.  We  shall  get  the  mail  to- 
morrow. When  shall  I  hear  from  you?  He  is  not  at 
home.  The  weather  is  very  cold.  She  writes  exceedingly 
well.     Surely*  he  will  return  soon. 


LESSON  XXX. 

OF   PREPOSITIONS. 


What  is  a  Preposition  ? 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  and 
ghow  the  relation  between  them;  as,  He  went  to  New 
York. 

Rem.—  To,  in  this  sentence,  connects  went  and  Neic 
York,  and  it,  also,  shows  the  relation  which  ITeiv  York 
bears  to  ivent.  The  connective  quality  will  readily  be  per- 
ceived by  omitting  the  preposition;  thus,  He  went  New 
York.     Here  the  total  want  of  connection  is  obvious* 

Since  Prepositions  connect  words,  and  show  the  relation  between  them, 
ho-w  many  terms  must  every  Preposition  have? 

Two,  viz  :  Antecedent  and  Subsequent. 

How  would  J  ou  define  the  Antecedent  term  ? 

The  Antecedent  term  is  so  called,  because  \t  preceded  i\\e 
Preposition  in  the  natural  order  of  construction. 

What  is  the  Suhsequcnt  term  ? 

The  subsequent  termfoUo^vs  the  Preposition  in  the  natu- 
ral order  of  construction. 


78  York's  illustrative  and 

What  parts  of  speech  may  be  used  as  the  Antecedent  term? 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  verb,  participle,  adjective,  and  even 
an  adverb. 

What  may  be  used  as  the  Subsequent  ? 

A  noun,  pronoun,  participle,  or  part  of  a  sente»cc. 

Rem. — When  a  Participle  is  used  as  a  Subsequent  term 
of  a  Preposition,  it  partakes  of  the  meaning  of  a  noun, 
and  is  frequently  called  by  grammarians  a  Participial 
noun ;  as,  He  earns  a  livelihood  by  writing. 

In  Tvhat  case,  is  the  Subsequent  term  of  every  Preposition  ? 

It  is  in  the  objective  case,  and  governed  by  the  Preposi- 
tion. 

In  order  to  ascertain  what  words  are  connected  by  Pre- 
positions, you  must  make  the  sense  your  guide, — guided 
by  this,  you  will  generally  be  able  to  determine  what  words 
are  Prepositions,  and  what  they  connect,  without  the  aid 
of  a  List  of  Prepositions. 

MODEL. 

Lot  fled  with  his  two  daughters,  from  Sodom  to  the 
mountains. 

From  is  a  Preposition,  and  connects  fled  and  Sodom^ 
and  shows  the  relation  between  them,  according  to  Rule 
XXX. 

Rem. —  With  and  fo,  in  the  above  example,  are,  also, 
Prepositions,  having  the  same  Antecedent  iQvm  fled ;  hence 
it  will  be  perceived  that  several  Prepositions  may  have  the 
same  Antecedent  term. 

Why  is  from  a  Preposition  ? 

Because  it  connects  words,  and  shows  the  relation  be- 
tween them. 

EXERCISES. 

There  was  a  marriage  in  Cana  of  Galilee.  The  sun 
shines  through  the  window  upon  the  floor.  Birds  fly  in 
the  air.     A  green,  narrow  vale  appeared  before  us ;  its 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR,  79 

^finding  stream  murmured  through  the  grove;  the  dark 
hosts  of  Rothmar  stood  on  its  hanks,  with  their  glittering 
spears.     She  sits  at  the  window.     Her  ways  are  ways  of 


LESSON  XXXL 

OF  CONJUNCTIONS   OR   CONNECTIVES. 
What  is  a  Conjunction,  or  Connective  ? 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word,  used  to  connect  phrases  and 
clauses  of  sentences,  and,  also,  words  of*  the  same  con- 
struction, therehy  enabling  the  speaker  or  writer  to  con- 
tinue discourse  at  pleasure ;  as,  Wheat  grows  in  the  field, 
and  men  reap  it.     Martha  and  Mary  were  sisters. 

Are  Conjunctions  ever  used  after  a  full  point,  or  period? 

They  are  sometimes  ;  thereby  manifesting  some  relation 
between  sentences  in  the  general  tenor  of  discourse. 

How  are  Conjunctions  generally  divided? 

They  are  generally  divided  into  Copulative  and  Disjunc- 
tive. 

Is  this  division  important  ? 

It  is  not ;  but  is,  perhaps,  worse  than  useless.  (See 
Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar;  also.  Dr.  Web- 
ster's Improved  Grammar.) 

Name  the  principal  Conjunctions,  used  in  connecting  discourse? 

They  are  andy  hut,  or,  nor,  yet,  than,  if,  though,  lest,  un- 
less, &c. 

(For  the  classification  of  Connectives,  see  Elements  of 
sentences,  Part  First.) 

MODEL. 

God  created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 
And  is  a  Conjunction,  and  connects  heavens  and  earth, 
according  to  Rule  22. 


80  YOtlK's  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Rem. — In  parsing  Conjunctions  which  connect  phrasea 
and  clauses,  no  rule  need  be  applied. 

EXERCISES. 

Clay  and  Webster  were  distinguished  Senators.  Time 
slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glasses  to  hope.  The  wicked 
is  driven  away  in  his  wickedness ;  but  the  righteous  hath 
hope  in  his  death.  Mary  and  Eliza  play.  James  will  im- 
prove, if  he  study.  Obey  my  precepts,  unless  you  wish 
to  injure  yourselves.  Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake. 


LESSON  XXXI. 


OF  INTERJECTIOirS  OR   EXCLAMATIONS. 

Whan  is  an  Exclamation   [Interjection]? 

An  Exclamation  is  any  sudden  expression  of  joy,  grief^ 
disgust,  calling,  &c.;  as,  0  jo;$^ful  sound  of  gospel  grace! 
Alas  !  I  fear  for  life  !  Turti  from  your  evil  ways,  0  houRe 
of  Israel !  &c. 

Rem.  1 — Considering  the  etymological  import  of  the 
term  Interjection,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  conceded  by  all  that 
the  name  is  inappropriate ;  since  but  comparatively  few  of 
the  words  called  Interjections,  are  thrown  between  the  parta 
of  a  sentence ;  the  term  Exclamation  is,  therefore,  to  be! 
preferred.  This  ia  recommended  by  Dr.  Webster  and  other 
able  philologists. 

Rem.  2 — Since  Exclamations  have  no  dependent  con- 
iStruction,  they  can  have  no  government,  nor  scarcely  can 
they  be  said  to  belong  to  written  language. 

MODEL. 

Alas  !  and  did  my  Saviour  bleed  ? 

Alas  is  an  Exclamation  [Interjection] ;  it  is  an  expr^s- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GEAMMAR.  81 

sion  of  grief;  it  has  no  dependent  construction  in  the  sen- 
tence, according  to  Rule  XXXI. 

EXERCISES. 

Oh !  what  a  fall  was  there.  Lo !  from  their  seats,  the 
mountains  leap.  Alas !  I  fear  for  life.  Ah  !  whither  shall 
I  fly  ?  What !  take  my  money,  and  my  life  too  !  Fie  ! 
how  angry  he  is. 


LESSON  XXXIIL 


OF  THE  CASES  INDEPENDENT,   ABSOLUTE,   AND  APPOSITION-, 

When  is  a  noun  or  prononn  said  U  be  in   the  Nominatire  oaae  Indt- 
pendent? 

It  is  said  to  be  in  the  Case  Independent  when  directly 
addressed ;  as,  JameSy  I  desire  you  to  study. 

When  Is  a  n«un  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  the  Nominatiye  Case  Absolute  .' 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  placed  before  a  participle, 
liaving  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  it  is  in  the  nominative 
•case  Absolute ;  as,  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our 
journey. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  Apposition  f 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  appended  to  another  noun 
or  pronoun  for  explanation  or  emphasis,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Apposition  with  it ;  as,  Paul,  the  great  ApostUy  was  cmi^ 
nent  for  his  Christian  zeal. 

Rem. — As  the  case  in  Apposition  must  always  agree  in 
case  with  the  principal  word,  it  must  be  construed  in  the 
same  member;  as,  [Daniel  Webster,  the  distinguished 
Statesman  and  Orator^  now  reposes]  (in  the  silent  grave.) 

MODEL  L 

BoySj  study  your  lessons. 


82  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Boys  is  a  common  noun,  masculine  gender,  second  per* 
son,  plural,  and  is  in  the  Nominative  case  Independent, 
according  to  Rule  27. 

MODEL  2. 

/being  in  great  haste,  he  consented. 

/  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  j&rst  person,  singular, 
and  in  the  nominative  case  Absolute,  according  to  Rule  28. 

MODEL  3. 

John,  the  beloved  Disciple,  was  banished. 

Diaciple  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender, 
third  person,  singular,  and  is  in  the  nominative  case^  put 
by  Apposition  with  John,  according  to  Rule  3. 

EXERCISES. 

Young  man,  you  have  ruined  yourself,  and  injured  your 
friend.  Horace,  thou  learnest  many  lessons.  The  Gene- 
ral being  slain,  the  army  was  routed.  The  moon  having 
risen,  we  resumed  our  march.  The  Butterfly,  child  of  the 
summer,  flutters  in  the  sun.  She  descending,  the  ladder 
fell.  Make  not  my  Father's  house,  a  house  of  merchan- 
dise. Ye  fields  of  light,  celestial  plains,  ye  scenes  divinely 
fair,  proclaim  your  Maker's  wondrous  power. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  Analyze,  Construe,  and  Parse  tho  following  sentences 
which  contain  all  the  Parts  of  speech ;  you  may,  also,  assign  the  reason  for 
ttv«  punctuation,  and  quote  tho  rules.] 

Eliza  went  with  Mary  to  the  well  for  water.     The  All 
wise  Creator  bestowed  tho  power  of  speech  upon  man  for 
the  best  purpose.     Pale  Cynthia  declining  clips  the  hori- 
zon.    Man  beholds  tho  twinkling  stars  adorning  night's 
blue  arch.     Rothmar  sunk  beneath  my  sword.     Thou  who 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  83 

hast  been  a  witness  of  the  fact,  canst  state  it.  The  rain 
having  ceased,  the  dark  clouds  rolled  away.  Beneath  the 
pale  beams  of  the  moon,  the  Indian  lover  sat,  and,  in 
piteous  tones,  bewailed  her  sad  condition.  If  youth  be 
trifled  away  without  improvement,  manhood  will  be  con- 
temptible, and  old  age,  miserable.  The  sun  shines  upon 
all  men  who  will  receive  his  rays  which  he  sends  from  the 
heavens.  John  the  Baptist  came,  preaching  in  the  wilder- 
ness of  Judea.  Jesus  departed,  and  went  into  the  parts  of 
Galilee. 

Thert)  I  shall  bathe  my  weary  soul 

In  seas  of  heavenly  rest, 
And  not  a  wave  of  trouble  roll 

Across  my  peaceful  breast. 

We  had  heard  the  news  before  the  messenger  arrived.  The 
work  might  have  been  finished  sooner.  Susan  may  visit 
her  sister  who  lives  in  the  country ;  but  Lucinda  must  re- 
main at  home  with  her  mother.  Go  ye  into  all  the  world, 
and  preach  my  Gospel  to  every  creature. 

Alas  !  the  joys  that  fortune  brings, 

Are  trifling,  and  decay; 
And  those  who  mind  the  paltry  things, 

More  trifling  still  than  they. 

The  value  of  the  Christian  faith,  may  be  estimated  from 
the  consolations  which  it  affords.  He  leadeth  me  in  the 
paths  of  righteousness,  for  his  name's  sake.  The  ejes  of 
a  fool  are  in  the  ends  of  the  earth.  The  good  taste  of  the 
present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cultivation 
of  the  English  language.  True  cheerfulness  makes  a  man 
happy  in  himself,  and  promates  the  happiness  of  all  who 
are  around  him. 

Charles,  you,  by  your  diligence,  have  made  easy  work 
of  the  task  which  was  given  you  by  your  preceptor.  Bo- 
naparte being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe. 
Boys,  study  your  lessons  closely,  if  you  wish  to  succeed. 
Paul,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentles,  suffered  martyr 
dom  at  Rome.  Why  seek  ye  the  living  among  the  dead  ? 
Canst  thou  expect,  thou  betrayer  of  innocence,  to  escape 
the  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

She  makes  the  heavy  heart  t«  sing, 

And  cheers  the  wintry  gloom, 
Floats  on  the  spicy  gales  of  spring, 

And  makes  all  feature  bloom. 


g4  YOBK'a  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

DoBt  thou  not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  head  of 
heath  ?  The  law  was^iven  by  Moses  ;  but  grace  and  truth 
-came  by  Jesus  Christ.  John,  the  Apostle,  was  banishec* 
to  the  ifile  of  Patmos. 

Your  friends  may  die,  and  haste  away 

To  that  blest  world  of  rest ; 
But  Mary's  part,  with  you,  will  stay, 

And  ever  make  you  blest. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

OF  SYNTAX. 


Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ? 

It  treats  of  the  construsetion  of  sentences. 

Do  joa  remember  wLat  a  sentence  is  ? 

A  sentence  is  such  an  aesemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  assert  a  fact? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate;  as,  The  sun  sMnes* 

Upon  what  principles,  are  most  of  tl?^  rules  of  Syntax  based  ? 

They  are  mostly  based  upon  three  principles,  viz :  Gov- 
eraoient.  Agreement,  or  Concord,  and  Position. 

Ib  what  does  Government  consist? 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has  in  direct- 
tog  the  Mode,  Tense,  or  Case  of  another  word. 

What  is  Agreement  or  Concord  f 

Concord  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  auother  in 
ff4nder,  persom,  number,  and  case. 

What  is  Position  ? 

Position  is  the  place  -which  a  word  occupies  in  a  sen- 
tence. 


CC^NSTi^D'CTIVE  «(SRAMMAIL  ^5 


LESSON  XXXV« 

•RULES   OF  6YKTAX- 

EULE  I — The  sul)ject  <jf  the  verb  must>e  in  tli<c  TaOik*'- 
nativc  case ;  as,  Joliw,  writea. 

RTJTiE  n — A  jaau-n  cr  pii^iwWiKi,  predicated  ef  .t"b8  sul> 
ject,  must  be  in  the  nomiiia>tiv«  ^caBe;  as.  Thou  wtlxe, — 
Law  ie  a  rvdc  of  actkwi- 

RULE  III — A  noun  or  pr«n(Buii,  nsed  to  identify  another 
nouTi  or  proROUTi,  is  put  'by  apposition  in  the  same  case : 
as,  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  wrote  niany  proverbs. 

RULE  TV — A  noun  -or  pron-oun  in  the  possessive  civst. 
5S  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits';  as,  ffohn't  book. 
His  'being  away  from  home,  was  the  caiise  of  great  disap- 
pointment. 

RULE  V — rh-e  i-nfinitiv-e  mode  is  governed  by  t'he  word 
•whi^h  it  limits;  as,  They  went  TO  se-E  hiia-  She  is'eag^r 
TO  LEARN.     I  heard  Iidm  say  it, 

RULE  ¥1 — The  ver'b  musf  agree  with  it^  ncminfitiYe  in 
jQ umber  and  person  ;  &s,  Thou  eeesit.  Ke  sees,  I  see.  We 
see,  &c. 

RULE  Vm — Two  -or  more  nomiRutives  in  the  singular, 
conoected  by  and,  mii-st  kave  verbs  agreeiisg  with  them  in 
the  plural ;  as,  Cato  and  Plato  tvere  wise. 

RULE  Vni — ^Two  or  mere  nomiRatives  in  th-e  singular, 
con^iected  by  ^r  or  ner,  must  kav«  v-erbs  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  singular ;  as  John  or  James  was  ill. 

RULE  IX— Whem  a  verb  agrees  with  the  lafinitiye 
mode  ©r  part  of  a  gentence  for  its  subject,  tt  must  be  in 
tiie  third  person  singular ;  as,  To  die  for  one's  country,  is 
glorious.     To  study  is  profifcable. 

RULE  X— A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unity, 
generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the 
singular ;  as.  The  nation  teas  once  powerful,  but  now  it  is 
feeble. 

RULE  XL— A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plu- 
7 


&(y  TOEK'S  ILHrSTKATTVF  ANT? 

ralit^,  geii>eraITy  ha^  &  Ter?/» amd?  prom)iai  in- the- plural ,~  ss"^ 
The  comimittee  wer^- divi^kd  m  their  somtimerjts. 

KFLE  XII — Frofi(x?i>s  agree  witb  tbeir  an-tecedcnts  Id 
gendSer,  irr.TrjbcT,  aiiii<  persoij :  asy  .?ohrv  ioet  hi^  krvifc.  He- 
j<'/i(^  stotSeS',  mVi  iraprcvre-. 

IIUL-E  XTII — The  iKufeMte-  catide  belcfngs-toR€«ns  ir* 
the-  &iTxigwlar  nuMHrbc-r  ;  as^  A  mi\m     An  hour. 

KULE  XI Y.*' — ^Tlie  dlefe^^e-  artide  belongs-  to»  ncwn^  o^' 
botli  Duirjber& ;  asy  T73'£^  man?.      The  iraen*. 

KULE  r^i^A^ — AcFjectF?es  b^lo-ng  t®  no^iifrand  pronouns; 

RLLE  XVI — AdjestiY€&  sometiisaeS'WoRfg' to  the  inSn- 
itivc  iDodfe,  p«rt  of  a  seii'teixje,  or  a  whoJe  senteiice;  as^ 
r^y^^i;-  is-  FLE^^SiYNT.  A6.REEA.BLE  to  this,  we  read  of  name s^ 
^:r'i7ig  blctted  out  of  God'&  boo-k. 

QualiSj  mdij  be  predieated  of  aetie-n ;  I>en>ce 

RULE  XVII — Adjectives  are  used  to-qimlifj  til-?  aetioK 
f.  \erbs^  ani^  to  express  the  (ju^lities-  of  things  in  connec- 
tion witli  X\iQ  action  bv  which  thej  are  protliu-eecJ ;  as^  Opeii 
thine  Lazad  wids.     Tiie  egga  b3>il  hmd.     The  \ist%  l;ook.& 

RULE  XVin — Fartidples  refey  to-  nouKis  aasf  pro- 
nouns j  as-,  Mary  having  written  her  iKter,  mailcil  it,  I 
3€e  hill)  walking. 

RULE  XIX— The  cbject  ©f  a  transitiTC  Terb  in  the 
active  Toiee,  is-  ysit  id  ^hc  ivbjectiTe  rase }  asy  I  m's^  him 
tvhom  you  we#, 

RTjLE  XX — The  obiect  e-f  a  iransitive  participle  is  put 
in  the  objective  case;  as,  I  sa-«r  a  man  heating  his  7ii)r5^. 

RULE  XXI — Tl\e  *>bjeet  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
O'bjective  ca.-^e  ;  aSy  Henry  Trent  with  me. 

RULE  XXII — Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same 
^ort ;  a&7  John  and  Jame^.     Crood  and  had,  etc. 


*  This  is  not  important,  since  there  is  no  possibility  of  violating  it. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  87 

RULE  XXIII — A  Conjunction  connects  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns of  the  same  case ;  as,  Ilenrj  and  WilUam  obey 
their  teacher. 

RULE  XXI Y — Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
of  like  modes  and  tenses;  as,  Kingdoms  rise  umi fall. 

RULE  XXY — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs ;  as,  He  writes  hadly. 

RULE  XXVI — Eup})ony  requires  that  the  sign  to  of 
the  infinitive  should  be  omitted  when  construed  with  the 
following  verbs,  viz :  hid,  dare,  feel,  make,  let,  hear,  help, 
see,  need,  and  their  participles  ;  as.  He  bid  me  come.  We 
felt  tlie  earth  trouble.     I  h^ard  him  speak,  etc. 

iiULE  XXVII — When  an  address  is  made,  the  nai-e 
of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  is  put  in  the  nominative'^' 
case  independent ;  as,  James,  I  desire  you  to  study. 

RULE  XX"\'III — A  nonn  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  agree  witli  it,  nor  word 
on  which  to  depend,  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  : 
as,  The  sttn  having  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode 
have  no  nominative  specified ;  as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be 
light,  and  there  was  light, 

RULE  XXX— Prepositions  point  out  the  relation  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms;  as,  Henry 
we7it  to  the  cit^/  of  Neiv  York. 

RULE  XXXI. — Exclamations  [Interjections]  have  no 
dependent  construction. 

Rem  — The  last  three  rules  niay  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may 
be  omitted — just  as  it  may  suit  the  tas*e  of  teachers. 


^  It  would  be  better,  perhaps,   t>   dr  >p  the  word  nominative,  and  simpiv 
say  "  The  case  indeijcndcut." 


88  YORK'S   ILLUSTRATIVE  A5D 

LESSON  xxjn^i. 

OF  RULES  OF  SYNTAX  WITH  NOTES  ;  AND  SENTENCES  TO  BE 
CORRECTED. 

RULE  L— The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case;  as,  "JbAn  writes." 

Note  1. — The  infinitive  mode,  or  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole 
sentence,  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb;  as,  "  To  nee,  is  pleasant" — 
*'  To  die  for  ofie'g  coimtnj,  is  glorious." 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it  must  take 
the  subjective  form  ;  as,  *'/,  tJioii,  he,  she,  we,  they,  etc. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

'' Them  told  itr    ^ 

Ie  thie  sentence  correct  f 

It  is  not. 

Why? 

Them  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  but  has  not  the 
subjective  form.  It  should  be,  "  They  told  it,"  according 
to  Rule  1. 

EXERCISES. 

[   [Correct  tbe  sentences  under  each  rule,  and  parse  the  words  corrected.] 

Him  struck  first.  Her  was  not  to  blame.  Them  were 
in  fault.  Who  said  it  'i  Me  said  it.  Him  is  in  the  field. 
Her  is  at  home. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

RULES  AND  CORRECTIONS   CONTINUED. 

RULE  11— A  noun  or  pronoun,  predicated  of  the  sub- 
ject, must  be  in  the  nominative  case;  as,  '•  Thou  art  he.'* 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"John  is  himJ", 


CONSTRUCTIVii    GRAMMAR.  81> 

la  this  sentence  correct  f 

It  is  not. 

Rim  is  predicated  of  the  subject  John,  but  is  not  in  the 
nominative  case,  or  has  not  the  subjective  form.  It  should 
be,  "John  is  he,"  according  to  rule  2. 

EXERCISES. 

Is  it  me?  I  thought  it  ^vas  him.  Mary  was  not  her. 
That  boy  is  him.  She  said  it  was  them.  It  was  her  that 
told  it.     Is  it  him  with  whom  he  is  angry  ? 

RULE  III.— A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  identify 
another  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same 
case;  as,  "Cicero,  the  Orator^ 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"He  took  it  to  be  /." 

13  this  sentence  correct? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason. 

/  is  used  to  identify  it,  but  is  not  in  the  same  case.     It  i 
should  be,  "  He  took  it  to  be  me.'"  ^ 

EXERCISES. 

I  believe  it  to  be  she.     She  mistook  me  to  be  he.     We  '^ 
adore  the  Divine  Beings  He  who  sustains  all  things.     It 
was  John,  him  who  preached  repentance.  I  saw  Mary,  she 
that  you  visited. 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

RULE  IV.— A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case, 
is  governed  bv  the  word  which  it  limits;  as,  ''''Johns 
book." 


v'O  YORK  8  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Note  1. — The  possessive  case  of  nouns  should  always  be  distin- 
guished by  an  apostrophe. 

Note  2. — Nouns,  pluralized  by  .s,  retain  the  apostrophe,  rejecting 
the  additional  8 ;  as,  Those  boys'  books. 

Note  3. — Any  noun  ending  in  a  hissing  sound,  followed  by  another 
oommcncing  with  a  hissing  sour.d,  retains  the  apostrophe  only ;  as 
"  Righteousness'  sake." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  That  girls  book  is  on  the  table." 

1«  this  eentence  correct? 

It  is  not. 

Point  out  what  is  wrong,  and  correct. 

Girls  is  in  the  possessive  case,  but  not  tlistinguishcd  by 
the  apostrophe.  The  apostrophe  should  be  inserted  be- 
ivreeii  the  I  and  s  ;  thus,  That  girVs  book. 

EXERCISES. 

Those  hoys  books  are  cleaner  than  that  girls  book.  The 
boys  hat  is  under  the  bed.  Peters  dog  bit  Johns  finger. 
The  Lords  day  should  be  kept  holy.  He  does  it  for  con- 
seience  sake. 

RULE  v.— The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  ■vvor<] 
^vhich  it  limits;  as,  "They  iveiit  to  see  him." 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

RULE  VL — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  w 
number  and  person;  as,  *' Thou  «^c«t"     ^'Wq  sees.''     *'I 

t^c."     ''  We  see:' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  1  lovethr 

Jt  tills  sentence  correct.^ 

It  is  not;  for  the  yerb  loveth  ha^  tho  termination  of  the 


'CO^STRTJCTTVE  'GRAXMATi,  'SI 

^1fird  'person  singute,  -solemn  .-style.  It  should  be  love  it- 
iagree  with  its  nomia^ative  <?«©f  the  -fct  |)er5on,  ^ingular^ 
-acoordir^  *o  i^le  VI. 

lE^EeCISOBS. 

ile  'five  ^.  'ho:ne,  I  'is  net  «?reiM,  '©hou.^i^wcame  at  last, 
'The  girls  has  retmraed.  M^  ihast  ^^aree  ^x>oks,  Yo^  ha* 
•a  fen-c  'dness.  "Mie  last  v\ve€&  Mwere  vary  hot,  -She  take 
•"Smilff.     tl  ,r;-.issfc  ^sbirts  mgr  ♦eyes,  .and  g^>es  at. 

iBiUOS  VIL — l>wo  'or  ^msve  •namka'tkef.  inthe  -smgiilar., 
'■^on^ected  \fj^a'nd^  Bfntst  <^bjm'e  <v>3i*bs  agreeing  Avith  .th^m  iy- 
•the  .iplural:;  4is,  '"♦Gat--©  aosS  M«*«'ti'ep»2  ^-svise." 

'*''Heisiry?3nid  WiTliam /^at'^  Fetuuned^'^ 

Is  this ^«n ten e«  correct .' 
It  is  (MOt-? 
Why? 

The  ^TeiH),  ^t^ref??rr/i<?5/has  ihe^singular  form,  but  "it  "ha-i 
V3W0 fiominatives  in  the  singular  connected  by  and;  it  should^ 
*ihei>e:foi>e,  %€  .H-enry  and  'Wiilliam  hu've  retuvnech  aooordin^ 

noiE«l9¥;IL 

Marthe,  amd  Mary  -^^js  si^-ers,  -D'olm  anH  ^etsr  'l</Ot'« 
^lay.  iBavidiand-^onatham  >Was  strongly  ^ attached  'to  'eaofc 
'Othor^     Elixa .end  'her  «.ister  'has .^one  into  4he  c<vu»ti;y^ 


L:ESS«ON  .X-i. 


EdiE  Tiri.--Two  or  more  noanJnatives  in  the  si'ngulaix 
''Connected  hj  or  ov  nor^  must  have  verbs  -agreeing  ^it'h 
x^hem  in  the  sirvgular  ;  as,,  "  J<©'in  or  James  wa^  ilL" 


92  YQPjK'S  2LLVSTRA'£TVE  Aiy^ 

FAI^E.  SYNTAX. 

-^  Jsimcs  zr  Tliomas  hai^e  done  this  iwischief'/* 

How  do  jou  correct  thf»  oeutenee??' 

li  should  be,  James   or  Thomas-  Jta^  doae  this  mischief 

Becau&e-  the  ver^  must  be  aingultaa^  to  agr«e  "withi  its' 
nominatives  in»  th 2  singular ,.  conaecMd  by  3?^,  according,  tc* 
Kulo  YUL. 

Either  he  ^r  she  drr^  to  hiame.  ISefther  Henrj  nor  Thc»- 
mas  ivere  in  fault.  Ignora?i08  or  'iigotrv  is'ero  the  cause  o^ 
tkii  CEudty.  Neither  the  miser  nor  tlie  spendtJu-ift  ara- 
happy. 

RUL5.  IX — -Whe?^  a  -jyr^^  agrees  with  the  infiiiitiva 
m5>de  e-r  part  of  a  3ejia:e:4«a  f^r  ifes-  subject^  k  ir/tist  be  of 
i'le  third  person,  singular;  as-,.  '^  To  see^  is  pleasan-t,' " 
■•'  To  die  for  onesoowntry^  ^  glbri3us,."' 

S-ALSE.  SYNTAX- 

^To  seelc  God',  are  wisdomo."' 

la  tkia  eentenco  correct '?. 
It  is-Tl-O't.. 
State;  tbo  rejus^n.. 

The  verb  haa  the  pluraJ  form,  whereas  it  haa  pfi^rt  df  ^j 
tientenca  for  its  subj.ect ;.  it  is,,  tWrefose,.  inoorr^ct.  i'> 
sliould  bCy.  To  a«ek  (j^l,  i^  wisdom,  ace(S>rdiiig  to  Riile  IX. 

EXERCISES, 

Thair  tiie  tmth  is  a  sphere,  ar'^  casiTj  proveJ^  Td  ser 
s>ur  frienils,  avs  pl^auDl.  'iV  publish  slanderous  words,. 
^re  wrong.  To  seek  our  own  happiness  by  violating  th*v- 
rights  of  Gfchrors,  are  contrary  to  the  (^rolden  Rule,  Ta 
lieaxn,.  are-  pleasanU 


cosstrvctivy:  gkajimak.  9-3 

RULE  X--A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  o^  unity, 
/:,'eneriilly  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the 
lingular  ;  as,  *'  That  nation  was  once  powerful ;  but  now 

it  id  feeble/' 

FALSE  SY>'TAX, 
^^The  council  tvere  unanimous." 

le  this  sentence  correct  ? 

It  ia  not. 

State  the  reason  wbj  it  ia  no*  correct :'' 

The  nominative  is  a  collective  noun^  conveying  idea  of 
nnifi;  ;  the  verb,  therefore,  should  be  singular ;  thus,  The 
council  iva»  unanimous. 

EXERCISES. 

The  society  mi^et  annually.  The  meeting  tvere  large. 
The  army  were  routed.     Congress  have  adjourned. 

RULE  XI— A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  i:>lu~ 
ralitf/j  generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it 
in  the  plural;  as,  ''The  council  tvere  divided  in  their  sen- 
timents/' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

*'  The  committee  was  divided  in  its  sentiments/' 
Say  the  committee  were  divided  in  their  sentiments. 

Why  should  the  verb  and  prououo,  in  this  sentence,  be  plural/ 

Because  the  noun  committee  conveys  the  idea  of  phi- 
rality, 

EXERCISES. 

The  people  was  divided  in  its  sentiments,  some  adhering 
to  one  faction,  and  some  to  another.  The  multitude  pur- 
sues pleasure  as  its  chief  good. 


LESSON  XLI, 
RULE  X7J.— Pronouns  agree  with  their  antecedents  in 


04  York's  illustrative  a^^b 

gender,  number,  and  person;  as,   ^' J^ha  lost  kk  knife.'' 
**  He  wA-c?  studies,  will  impn3v<?.^^ 

Note  I. — Wh-cn  the  rdativc  relates  to  antecedents  of  different  per- 
sons, it  m*y  *sTec  with  cither;  but,  wbcn  i5k3  agrcctnetit  has  been 
•determined,  it  must  becont£nue<l  throughout  the  seiUenoe;  as,  *^  7'fio>i 
art  the  Loni,  «-/<»';  <h\i^t  ch<x)sc  Aferaftaw,  <md  did^t  bring  him  forth 
out  of  Ur  of  the  ChakSeefu" 

Note  2. — When  «,  prv)no«n  rcUtcs  to  tvro  or  too^c  antecoients  in 
'■che  singular,  oanncct'eil  by  •cmd,  it  tnust  be  in  the  plurah  but,  ii  its 
antecedents  arc  oanwecteJ  by  *sr  or  u€?\  it  must  be  in  the  si-Ti^ulars 

fcWLSe  SYNTAX, 

^"'  Ev^!-y  <3?ie  must  take  csirc  of  tkcm^ehcs.'^ 
Say  every  one  must  take  care  of  hi?Hself» 

Why  jsbould  it  h^hr^scf/f 

Because  the  antece:ient  otte  is  singular,  the  pronouu 
must,  also,  be  singular,  according  Rule  XIL 

EXERCISES. 

Every  b^dy  is  accountable  for  thew  own  conduct.  Every 
tree  bears  fr«it,  according  to  his  own  kind.  Speak  to  the 
?neR,  and  say  to  him.  The  wheel  kil]e<l  another  man  who 
is  the  sixth  th^at  has  lost  their  life  by  this  means, 

RULE  Xiri— -The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns 
in  the  singular  number ;  as,  A  man.     An  hour. 

Note. — A  should  be  u^sed  befoix;  words  comtnencing  with  a  conso- 
nant sound,  and  Aw.  should  be  used  before  woixls  commeucing  with 
vowel  sounds;  ys,  ../.  l^O'ck.     An  apple. 

Rem. — ft  is  more  euphoni«3us  to  use  An.  before  words  commencing 
wtth  A  when  the  aoceeit  is  o«  the  second  syllable;  as,  Ati  histf?rlc 
account, 

EXERCISES, 

The  children  have  been  playing  a  hour.  I  saw  an  man 
walking.  She  is  an  beautiful  lady.  An  horse  is  a  noble 
animal.  A  century  is  an  hundred  years.  A  honest  man 
IS  an  great  man. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  95 


LESSON  XLII. 

RULE  XZV — The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of 
both  numbers;  as,  '*  The  man."     ''  The  men." 

RULE  XV— Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns  ; 
as,  "  A  good  man."     "  She  is  heautifuV 

Note  1. — Such  specifying  adjectives  as  are  varied  to  express  num- 
ber, must  agree  in  number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong  ;  as, 
This,  that,  these,  those. 

"  TJuiic  sort  of  goods  is  not  fa^shionablc.  Say,  This  sort  of  goods 
is  not  fashionable. 

EXERCISES. 

TJiosc  sort  of  favors  does  real  injury.  Those  kind  ot 
fruit  is  not  good.  /  am  not  pleased  with  these  sort  of  ex- 
pressions. 

Note  2. — Specifying  adjcctices  of  the  numer.il  kind,  require  nouns 
to  agree  in  number;  as,  One  man.      Ten  men. 

"The  wall  is  three /c;(?«  bigh."     Say,  The  wall  is  i\\YQcfect  high. 

EXERCISES. 

The  pole  is  Us ^uty  foot  long.  The  sound  is  thirty  mile 
wide,  and  three  fathom  deep.  The  Ohio  is  one  thousand 
miles  long.     The  room  is  iXnviy  foot  long  and  twenty  wide. 

Note  3. — Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  not  be  used  ; 
as,  **J/<? re  better."     "  J/y»^  extremest." 

"The  most  Highest  hath  created  us  for  IJis  own  glory."  Say,  The 
raost  Ilidh  hath  created,  &c, 

EXERCISES. 

I  will  show  you  a  more  better  way.  That  is  the  mo-st 
tallest  man  /ever  saw.  He  is  worser  than  he  was.  That 
is  the  most  weakest  argument  I  have  ever  heard. 

Note  4. — When  two  objects  are  compared,  the  comparative  degree 
should  be  used  ;  and,  w^ien  three  or  more,  the  superlative;  as,  Mary  is 
taller  than  her  sister.     Th:^t  is  the  to.Uest  tree  in  the  forest. 


90  York's  illustrative  and 

James  is  the  taJle/tt  of  the  two.     Say,  James  is  the  taller  of  the 
two. 

EXERCISES. 

He  is  the  wiser  of  the  three.  This  is  the  best  of  the 
two  ways.  Henry  is  the  strongest  of  the  two.  She  is  the 
better  of  her  class. 


LESSON  XLHI. 


liULE  XVI— Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infini- 
tive mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence;  as, 
''^  To  see,  is  pleasant.''  ^^  Agreeable  to  this,  ive  read  of 
names  being  blotted  out  of  God's  book." 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  as, 

RULE  XVII — Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  ac- 
tion of  verbs,  and  to  express  the  qualities  of  things  in 
connection  with  the  action  by  which  they  are  produced  ; 
as,  "  Open  thine  hand  ivide."     "The  trees  look  green." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"Still  water  runs  deeply." 

[3  this  sentence  correct .' 

It  is  not.  It  should  be,  still  water  runsrfeej^,  according 
to  Rule  XVII. 

EXERCISES. 

The  fields  look  freshly  and  gayly.  She  looks  coldly. 
The  chiy  burns  whitely.  The  rose  smells  sweetly.  Apples' 
boil  softly. 

RULE  XVIII— Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  "/see  him  walking."  "-Mary  having  ivritteu 
the  letter,  mailed  it." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  97 


LESSON  XLIV. 


RULE  XIX — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  ''I  saw  liim 
whom  you  met." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Who  80«st  thou  ? 

Id  this  sentence  correct  ? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason. 

Who  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  seest  in  the 
active  voice ;  but  has  not  the  objective  form ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, incorrect,  and  should  be,  Whom  seest  thou  ? 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  they  we  know.  They  who  will  not  study,  you 
must  correct.  He  that  is  studious,  you  should  encourage. 
She  that  is  negligent,  reprove  sharply.  Who  does  he  revile. 
He  declare  I  unto  you. 

RULE  XX — The  object  of  a  transitive  participle,  must 
be  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  I  saw  a  man  beating  his 
horse.'' 

RULE  XXI — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  "Henry  went  with  me,'' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Who  did  you  walk  with?" 

Is  this  sentence  correct? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reafon,  and  correct  it. 

Who  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  tvith ;  but  has  hot 
the  objective  form.  It  should  be,  With  whom  did  you 
walk  ?  according  to  rule  XXI. 


I>8  Z  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVK  AND 


EXERCISES. 


He  cave  the  frnir  to  /.  Between  /and  you,  there  i.-i  a 
crreit  disparity  of  years.  The  teacher  spoke  to  he  an«l  I. 
With  >vho,  does  he  trifle  ? 


LESSON  XLV. 


RULE  XXII — Conjunctions  connect  Avords  of  the  same 
sort;  as,  "Jo/m  {>nd  James.''  Good  und  had.''  ^'' Gj-ace- 
fullij  and  rajndly.'' 

i^KM. This  rule  should  only  be  applictl  when  conjunctions  connect 

words. 

RULE  XXIII — Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns in  the  same  case  ;  as,  "  Henry  and  William  obey 
their  leacher."  "They  assisted /r/?yi  and  7?i<.^"  '"'David's  and. 
Jonathaiis  friendship." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Him  and  I  went.     Say,  He  and  I  went. 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  them  have  no  dealings.  He  sent  it  to  her  and 
I.  She  and  nie  are  cousins.  Him  and  they  are  brothers. 
He  went  with  her  and  I.     Who  will  go  ?     He  and  me. 

RULE  XXIA^— Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
of  like  modes  and  tenses  ;  as,  "  Kingdoms  rise  and  fall" 


LESSON  XLVL 

RULE  XXV — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  *'•  He  writes  well.'' 


COi?rSTKU€TIYE    GKA3IMiiK.  99 

Note. — "When  manner  is  expressed,  an  «(^t'cr?v  should  be  employed, 
and  not  an  adject  ire  ;  a&.  The  birtls  sing  ^wee-tlhf.     Shs?  dances  grae-e- 

fuiy     Say,  She  dances  gracefuliy. 

EXERCISES  FOP.  COKRECTION. 

Clouds  are  moring  sle^w.  That  }0«ng  ladj  sings  sweet. 
The  bell  rings  n:ierry.  Time  flies  rapid.  She  cannot  hear 
gocxl.     He  writes  bad.     That  hoy  walks-  awkward. 

Noi'E  2. — Umiieccf5vS{iry  negatives  shcHild  be  avoklcil;  as-,  I  don't 
jScno\T  nothhig  abcut  it,  Stiy,  3  know  nothiiig  about  it,  w  I  do  not 
knmv  any  thing  ube-imt  it. 

FOR  CORRECTION. 

He  never  s-ays  nothing.  He  haint  got  no  more.  lie 
Jon't  do  nothing.  In  our  neighborhood,  no  body  never 
take  no  newspapers. 

RULE  XXVI — Euphony  requires  that  the  sign  fo  of 
the  infinitive  should  be  omitted  when  construed  with  the 
following  verbs,  viz.  hid^  dare,  feel,  help,  make,  let,  hear, 
»ee,  need,  and  their  participles  ;  as,  "  He  bid  me  eome,'' 
"  We  felt  the  earth  tremble,''  etc. 

Note. — When  Ihcse  verbs  are  used  in  the  Passive  voice,  the  sign 
is  used;  as,  ''"He  was  often  heard  to  aayJ" 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Let  bim  to  go.     Say,  Let  him  go, 

EXERCISES. 

Bid  him  to  depart.  I  felt  the  earth  to  shake.  I  heard 
her  to  say.  Help  him  to  work.  He  need  not  to  attend, 
I  saw  the  child  to  walk.  He  dare  not  to  do  it.  Make  the 
man  to  work. 


LESSON  XLYII. 
RULE  XXYII — When  an  address  is  made,  the  name 


100  VORKS  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

of  die  person  or  thing  addresged,  la  put  in  tlie  nominaiice 
case  indeptmdent\  as,  *'^</ainei,  I  desire  you  to  study." 

RULE  XXVIII — A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  a^jree  with  it,  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case  absolute;  as  "The  sun  having  risen, 
we  pursued  our  journey." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Me  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented.  Say,  /  being 
in  great  haste,  he  consented. 

EXERCISES. 

Her  descending,  the  ladder  fell.  It  was  said  to  me,  him 
being  in  company.  It  was  said  of  them,  him  being  present. 
Her  being  in  distress,  the  necessary  aid  was  sent. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode, 
have  no  nominative  specified ;  as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be 
light,  and  there  was  light." 

RULE  XXX — Prepositions  point  out  the  relations  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms  :  as,  "  He 
went  to  the  city  of  Neiv  York.'' 

RULE  XXXI — Interjections  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction. 

Rem- — The  last  three  rules  may  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may  be 
omitted — -just  as  it  may  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED  BY  THE  "DIAGRAM  OF  TIME." 

MODEL — "  I  finished  my  letter  before  the  mail  ar- 
rived." 

The  verb  finished  is  in  the  past  tense,  whereas  it  is  used 
in  the  -pior  of  two  past  events ;  the  verb,  therefore,  is  in- 
correct ;  it  should  be  had  finished  in  the  pluperfect,  accord- 
ing to  Figure  4  of  the  "  Diagram  of  Time." 

EXERCISES. 

We  have  studied  our  lessons  yesterday.  I  never  drank 
better  water.     We  came  here  to-day.     Philosophers  have 


C-Ol^STRU'CTWE  GRAMMAR,  101 

ESkade  great  disco veri<36  l&st  eentury.  After  I  kave  quoted 
the  text,  you  will  see  its  applieati^Jn,  After  I  visited  Eu- 
rope, I  returned  to  Am-erica.  The  thief  escaped  before 
the  goods  were  missed.  John  will  osmplete  his  task  by 
ithe  appointed  time.  Thse  world  will  have  been  destroyed 
by  fire. 


LESSON  XLVIIL 

False  Syntax  Promiscuously  Arranged. 

1  John  writes  beautiful.  I  shall  never  do  so  no  more. 
This  is  him  who  I  gave  the  book  to.  Eliza  always  appears 
amiably.  That  house  is  sixty  foot  long.  Was  you  present 
;as  the  procession  passed.  He  who  they  seek  is  in  the 
house.  Her  mother  and  her  were  at  the  celebration.  The 
master  requested  him  and  I  to  read  our  compositions  more 
distinctly. 

2  Those  sort  of  books  are  beautiful.  What  does  you 
think  of  him  now  ?  Thou,  Thomas,  shall  €ee  those  animals 
of  which  you  speak.  Who  went  with  Mary  to  church  ? 
Me.  Let  us  to  proceed.  To  love  God  with  all  thy  heart 
are  a  divine  command.  Neither  man  nor  woman  were 
present. 

3  High  hopes  and  ambitious  views  is  a  great  enemy  to 
tranquility.  Has  you  been  well  since  I  seen  you  last  ?  I 
has.  A  too  great  variety  of  studies  weaken  and  dissipate 
the  mind.  He  has  went  to  town.  He  might  have  com- 
pleted the  task  sooner,  but  he  could  not  do  it  better. 


LESSON  XLIX. 

Of  Colloquial  Inaccuracies. 

As  Colloquial  Inaccuracies  are  too  numerous  and  varied 
to  be  comprehended  by  any  syntactical  rules,  however 


102 


YORK  3  ILLUSTRATIVE  AWS> 


copious,  we  have  thrown  together  some  of  th^e  inaccnraeies, 
and  arranged  the  correct  andincorrcet  expressions  in  par- 
allel columns.  Though  thes^  colloquial  inaccaraeies  may 
vary  not  only  in  different  States,  but,,  also,  in  different 
sections  of  the  same  State,  yet  they  may  nearly  all  be 
traced  to  three  leading  sources,  viz :  1  Ummrrantahle 
Contractions.  2  Redundant  words  or  JPhonastic  expres- 
sions, and  3  Words  badly  chosen  to  eonvey  the  sense  in- 
tended, 

CLASS  L 

Unwarrantable  Contractions. 

Though  some  contractions  are  admissible  in  familiar 
style,  yet  they  sliould  be  carefully  aroided  in  all  grave  or 
solemn  discourse. 


Incorrect, 

I  aViiH  well, 
I  hav'nt  been  out. 
We  weren't  there, 
SJie'd  heard  of  it, 
I  us'd  to  know  it, 
I^Te  seen  '«r, 
I  ^spose  Uwitl, 
Lay  ^em  on  the  table, 
Gim  me    some  bread, 
A  good^eel  too  short, 
He  haint  none, 
You  do'ii't  know  Hmy 
John^s  got  enough, 
Cmi't  she  go? 


Correct. 

I  am  not  well, 

I  have  not  been  out^ 

We  were  not  there, 

She  bad  h^ard  of  it,. 

I  used  to  know, 

I  hare  seen  her, 

I  suppose  it  will, 

Lay  them  on  the  table,, 

Give  ine  some  bread, 

Very  much  too  short, 

He  has  none. 

You  do  not  know  him, 

John  has  enough. 

Can  she  not  go  f 


CLASS  IL 
Redurdaict  Words,  or  Pleokastic  Expressions. 
Incorrect.  Correct. 


I  could  not  get  to  go, 

The  speaker  rose  -wp. 

He  fell  down. 

Up  above, 

Up  over, 

D9wn  under. 

He  mentioned  it  over  again, 

I  will  repeat  it  again^ 


I  could  not  go. 

The  speaker  rose. 

He  fell, 

Above, 

Over, 

Under, 

He  mentioned  it  again, 

I  will  repeat  it, 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


103 


Incorrect. 
They  loth  met, 
He  cannot  taWfor  why, 
Return  had-  immediately, 
He  went,  but  will  soon  come 

hdch  again, 
Where  shall  I  go  to  ^ 
He  was  in  here, 
AVc  entered  into  the  case, 
I  am  a  going. 
He  is  a  walking. 
Can  you  go  ?  To  he  sure. 
D'ye  see  that  ihar  man  ? 
/'fe  done  said  it, 
Btit  he  8  done  done  it, 
How  do  you  do  ? 
He  has  (jot  enough, 
Mary  she  went, 
John  he  said  it, 
Susan  her  bonnet, 
George  his  book, 
Bring  me  them  there  quills, 
This  here  book. 
That  there  book, 
LooTcy  there, 


Correct. 
They  met, 
He  cannot  tell  why, 
Return  immediately. 
He  went,  but  will  soon  return, 

"Where  shall  I  go? 

He  was  here. 

Wo  entered  the  cave, 

I  am  going, 

lie  is  walking. 

Can  you  go  ?     Surely, 

Do  you  see  that  man  ? 

I  have  said  it. 

But  he  has  done  it, 

How  Are  you  ? 

He  has  enough, 

Mary  went,  " 

John  said  it, 

Susan's  bonnet, 

George's  book, 

Bring  me  those  quills, 

This  book, 

That  book, 

Look  there. 


CLASS  II L 
Words  Badly  Cuosen. 


Incorrect. 

I  am  drij. 

Put  out  the  candle, 

Give  me  them  books, 

I  reckon  it  will  rain, 

I  gucM  it  is  enotigh, 

I  calculate  to  return, 

You  read  right  well, 

She  cannot  hear  good, 

lam  monstrous  glad  to  see  you, 

He  has  a  heap  of  money, 

1  want  it  hadlt/, 

A  great*  territory. 

The  Erricson  is  a  big'^  ship, 

AV'ebster's  large*  mind, 


Correct. 

I  atn  thirsty, 

Extinguish  the  light. 

Give  me  those  booku, 

I  think  it  will  ram, 

I  think  it  is  enough, 

I  intend  (or  purpose)  to  return, 

You  read  very  well. 

She  cannot  hear  well, 

I  am  glad  to  see  you, 

He  has  miich  money, 

I  want  it  much, 

A  liirge  territory, 

The  Erri<son  is  a  1  rge  ship, 

Webster's  great  mind. 


*  Great  is  applicable  to  mental  measurement,  large  to  the  measure- 
ment of  solid  bodies,  and  big  to  some  un)iatural  increase  ov  swelling. 


104 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Incorrect. 


COKRECT. 


He  is  io  the  store, 

My  mother  learned  me  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  right  had. 

It  rains  hard, 

A  hard  battle, 

A  little  hit  a  sentence, 

1  got  2ip  at  7  oclock, 

ril  do  as  well  as  I  liii^ 

Yon'oTus  ought  to  go. 

Are  yons  all  well  V 

You  unzes  can  stay, 

I  Imow'd  it  was  Jmn^ 

He  is  gwine  home, 

I  seen  her, 

I  hearn  her, 

I  taken  it  to  be  him, 

You  had  letter  go, 

They^i  half  an  hour, 

I  allowed  he  had  come, 

He  allowed  to  me, 

I  admire  at  you, 

Me  and  you  think  alike, 

Ouch !  how  it  burns. 

The  storm  hegun  to  subside, 

He/otched  it, 

I  sot  out  on  my  journey. 

Let  us  walk  out,  and  take  the 
fresh  ar, 

They  air  at  home, 

Crockett  was  a  great  bar  hun- 
ter, 

Tha/r  he  stands. 

He  chaws  his  own  tobacco, 

I  can't  miTid  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  those  mo- 
lasses,* 

I  am  sceared  of  robbers, 

I  see  him  last  Monday, 

Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow?  Because  «/i<3  was  not 
repaired, 

Let  the  Sicertery  record  the 
names. 


He  is  at  the  store. 

My  mother  taught  me  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  very  much. 

It  rains  fast, 

A  fierce  battle, 

A  small  sentence, 

I  rose  at  7  oclock, 

ril  do  as  well  as  I  can. 

You  ought  to  go. 

Are  you  all  well? 

You  can  stay, 

I  knew  it  was  he, 

He  is  going  home, 

I  saw  her, 

I  heard  her, 

I  took  it  to  be  him, 

You  would  do  better  to  go. 

They  fought  half  an  hour, 

I  supposed  he  had  come, 

He  suggested  (or  said)  to  me, 

I  wonder  at  you. 

You  and  I  think  alike. 

Oh !  how  it  burns. 

The  storm  began  to  subside. 

He  brought  it, 

I  set  out  on  my  journey. 

Let  us  walk  out  and  take  the 
fresh  air, 

They  are  at  home, 

Crockett  was  a  great  bear  hun- 
ter. 

There  he  stands. 

He  chews  his  own  tobacco, 

I  cannot  recollect  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  the  (or  that) 
Molasses, 

I  am  afraid  of  robbers, 

I  saw  him  last  Monday, 

Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  it  was  not 
repaired. 

Let  the  Secretary  record  the 
names, 


*  Molasses  is  strictly  singular,  being  the  syrup  which  drains  from 
Muscovado  sugar  while  cooling. 


\ 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  105 

Incorrect.  Correct. 

I  am  purty  nigh  frozen,  I  am  nearly  frozen, 

Pack  the  wheat  off  to  mill,  Talce  (or  send)  the  wheat  to 

mill, 
Pack  her  off  to  church,  Take    (or    conduct)    her     to 

church. 


LESSON  L. 


PUNCTUATION   OR   GNOMONOLOGY. 
What  is  punctuation  ? 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composi- 
;ion  into  sentences,  clauses,  and  phrases,  in  order  to  make 
the  stops  which  the  sense  of  the  sentiment,  its  grammatical 
^.onstruction,  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

What  aro  the  principal  stops  used  to  denote  these  pauses  ? 

They  are  the  comma  [,],  the  semicolon  [;],  the  colon  [:], 
he  period,  or  full  full  stop  [.],  the  interrogation  [?],  the 
.exclamation  [!],  the  parenthesis  [()],  and  the  dash  [ — ]. 

Into  how  many  classes,  may  these  gnomons,  idices,  or  points  be  divided  ? 

They  may  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz  :  such  as  sepa- 
ate  parts  of  a  sentence,  and  those  which  separate  entire 
.entences.  The  former  arc  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon, 
dash,  and  parenthesis.  The  latter  are  the  period,  the  in- 
terrogation, and  exclamation  points. 

As  the  characters,  used  in  punctuation,  commonly  called 
stops,  are  mere  grammatical,  they  are  intended  to  point 
out  the  sense  of  the  construction,  rather  than  to  indicate 
the  length  of  time  the  reader  or  speaker  should  pause  at 
each  point. 

The  Comma  ( , ). 

The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  the  shortest  pause ;  it  is, 
also,  used  to  denote  the  ellipsis  of  some  words. 

The  principal  uses  of  the  comma  are  exhibited  in  the 
following  rules  and  remarks. 


106  York's  illustrative  and 

RULE  I — When  the  construction  of  a  simple  sentence 
is  interrupted  by  an  adjunct,  loosely  thrown  between  its 
parts,  it  must  be  separated  by  a  comma  before  and  after 
it ;  as,  "  Law,  in  its  most  confined  sense^  is  a  rule  of  human 
action."  "  Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  every  object 
around  it." 

RULE  II — When  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  propo- 
sition is  modified  by  a  subordinate  clause,  or  by  an  adjunct 
considerably  extended,  the  logical  subject  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  The  hail  zvhich 
fell  last  week,  badly  injured  the  standing  crops."  "  The 
intermixture  of  evil  in  human  society/,  serves  to  exercise 
some  of  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul." 

Rem. — If  the  modifying  element  is  short,  the  comma  may  b. 
omitted;  as,  "The  end  of  all  things  is  at  hand." 

RULE  III — When,  by  transposition,  the  sub  or  inferior 
member  occupies  the  place  of  its  super,  it  may  be  separa- 
ted by  a  comma  ;  as,  *'  Bi/  doing  good  to  others,  we  secure 
the  approbation  of  our  own  conscience."  ''From  me,  they 
flee." 

RULE  IV — The  nominative  case  independent,  and  sever- 
al of  the    interjections,  are  separated  by  commas,  since 
they  are  not  elements  of  a  sentence, — consequently  no 
closely  connected;  as,  "■  Mt/  son,  give  me  thy  heart."  "I 
you  will  assist  me,  Jaynes,  I  will  accompany  you."     "Xo, 
from  their  seats,  the  mountains  leap." 

Rem.  1. — When  the  case  independent  is  modified  by  an  adjunct, 
the  comma  should  be  placed  after  it ;  as,  John  of  Kichmonil^  come 
forth. 

Rem.  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  joined  nith  a  noun  in  making  an  ad- 
dress, it  should  not  be  separated  from  the  noun  ;  as,  "  Ye  scenes  di- 
mnelyfair,  proclaim  your  Maker's  wondrous  power." 

Rem.  3. — Those  interjections  which  express  a  veiy  strong  emotion 
or  feeling,  are  generally  followed  by  an  exclamation  point;  as,  '''Ah  ! 
whither  shall  I  fly  ?" 

Rem.  4. — When  a  conjunction  introduces  an  eiraw/y^tf,  or  is  separated 
by  some  intervening  words  or  phrases,  from  the  member  to  which, 
it  belongs,  it  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  Prepositions  gov- 
ern the  objective  case;  as,  "With  him,  I  went."  ^^For,  for  this  cause, 
pay  ye  tribute  also. 


■CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR,  107 

Sem,  5. — An  adverb,  or  perhaps  any  other  word,  thrown  off  from 
the  member  to  which  it  Iselongs,  shoi^d  be  separated  bj  a  comma; 
as, 

"  Sorsn  bora*  on  Time's  mo9tTaf&d  win^, 

S^tail  De&tii  command  yoK  to  his  bar."" 

Rejj,  6. — Words  of  xjthers  repeated,  but  not  ss  quotation's,  and  al6(V 
words  and  phrases  repeated  for  eiaphasis,  should  be  separated  by  a 
comma  or  commas ;  £s,  "'^  Thus  shalt  tbsu  say  to  the  children  of  Israel, 
f  AM  kath^fMt  me  tint9  youy     *' Hap^-'^^  ha,ppy^  k^M^i/t  pa-ir." 

RULE  V — The  'sase  absolute  with  words  depending  on 
it,  participles  andad^'ectives  with  werds  depending  on  them, 
should  be  separated  from  the  restv@f  the  sentence  bj  com- 
mas; as,  *■*'  Bonapixrtc  ^Ing  banhhed^  peace  was  restored 
to  Europe,""  His  talents,  formed  for  gr^at  enterprke^^ 
could  not  fail  to  i-end-er  him  conspicuous- 

**  Jcscs,  let  tfi  t?iy  lovers  shino. 

Illustrious  as  the  sun, 
And,  hrifhi  rr''th.  borrowed  ra^  d-itnf*Cf 

Their  glorious  cirocit  ruE." 

Hem.  1 — When  a  parfekiple  imtaedcatety  iloUows  the  Tro^ci-\>ri  Trliich 
it  depends,  taken  in  a  restrictive  sense,  thecomma  should  be  omitted 
before  tlie  p artidple;  as,  "  He  i&u)ig  r^idicidcd^  le;ft  ^.he  ?K5tatutc-©ii." 

Rex.  S — When  a  paTticiple,  Trith«.iit  &n  sic^unes  i-s  &£i5ar£X,e(S  from 
the  word  on  which  it  de|^ciids  ip.  constractioii,  a  cote  ma  jy>  generally 
'inserted  before  and  after  it:;  a^;,  "^  And,  vhep.  i%e  v/as -CvMue  iie<ir,  he 
l»ehelcl  the  city,  and  wept  over  (t,  ^yUvg^  if  tfeeu:  lia<£st  kiMWfa^  etc." 

RULE  TI — When  £k<5  relative  its  f>(5  ckfyelr  e<3nnccted 
%vith  its  antecedent,  that  it  will  Vi^t  vAm'it  gT  tr;iRsp>j>ition, 
it  sh<gul<i  laet  be  separated  from  it  by  &  cemma;  as,  '"^  Henrj 
saw  b&ts  which  he  wante<L"'^ 

Rem.  I- — The  relative  nr.ay  be  «ep«;rate^  by  «,  comiua,  w^i-en  its  :ante- 
•cedent  is  used  in  a  general  serise  ;  as,  **  Man,  izhe  is  bcrn  of  womaR 
es  of  few  >d&ys,  tsnd  Cuil  <£  troable." 

Rem.  :£ — A  coEimia  «hc«M  be  placed  before  the  relative  when  a  word 
or  phrase  intervenes  between  it  and  its  aisitecedent;  as,  *'He  gave  me 
the  piece  of  aa  a^^ie,  which  he  found." 

Rem.  ^ — Whe^n  ^ho.  rd«-ti?fe  clause  is  broken  by  1^  intrody^ctioTi  ol 
a  sub-membefr,  the  rci&tive  «aay  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  by 
a  comma;  as,  "  An  old  dock,  which,  forjifty  ly^car^  had  stood  in  & 
farmer's  kitchen,  suddenly  stopped." 

iS-EM.  -i—When  the  relative  clause  is  imvolved,  and  readilj  admits  of 


lOS-  YGKKS  IJLLCSTRAlflVE  AICD 

tranKpo>ition,  the  relntivc  may  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  I)j  a 
c:)mnia;  as,  "The  lady^  n'h,9ss /wsss  ue  oc3ypy;  bestows  many  char- 
itics." 

Rem.  5^ln  aoeb  examples  as  the  lha^,.  I'he  comma  is  frequently 
omitted  Wfore  tvie  relative,  nor  does  the  constnietion  really  desnanJ 
that  the  relative  s?kx>uld  be  i^eparated  from  its  antea.'iCem.<:  !«  any  case^ 
except  2«  noticed  in  IJ^eiDork  2. 

RLLE  YII — Wfien.  a  eonjunstMn  is  nntTerstooo'  in  con- 
necting v/ords  in  the  same  cofis-^Fuction,  its  pkcs  should! 
be  supplied  by  a,  cc-mma,  and,,  al'&o,  when  the  verb  of  a 
simple  membGi'  is^  understood  ;  a?^  "  He  is  a  plai}^,,  \onest 
man."  From  law,  arises  security  >  from  ^eeurity,  curiosity; 
from  curioHtjj,.  knowledge^"  etc-, 

RULE  VIII — Three  or  more  iN-ords  occ-urriiig  in  the- 
same  constri^etion,  with  their  conjunction  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, should  all  be  separated-  by  eomnias,  except  the 
]a&t ;  as^  "  David  vas  a  hra^e\,  wiu,  pious,  and  generous^ 
man/' 

0es:??.R'7ATI0N — Tlie  reason  why  the  last  Trord  is  not; 
separated,  is^  because  it  is  either  ia  j'axta-position  with  its^ 
iiiper,  or  clo&es  a  aeateisige. 

Rof.  2 — If  th*-?  aTTB  notiainative.^,  vyritera  ger>erally  sspayj^te  the. 
Fast  alHo  :  an,  'Fuii  hewd,  tb-g /i^a.vf,  andth-j  Aft^scfo-sbouM  b«  cosistantljr 
tmplcyed  i^  doing  gootL" 

RE3f.  i^' — "Wben.  words  ars  eo?J5i€ct£d  in  pajrs,  the  pairs  on5y  slfloukl 
bo  separated  ;.  a»,  '■'Interest  and  a)9hhitioi\  /*i»ic.p  and  ahmne,  friend - 
^hip  a!.xi  enmity,  gratitude  avA  rsven^.e,  are  ths  prime  wiovers  in> 
pubhc  transiietions,'" 

Rem.  S— Words  or  phases,  placed  antithstica%,  sbauM  be  separated 
by  commas >  usy  "'.though  dse^,  ^t  dear;.  tho*ighr  ffsntk,  ijetnot 
dully 

Rem.  -1 — "When  the  conjunction  or  joins  on  a  v.-ord  whfcli  expresses- 
an  alternative  ?)f  wc'^ds,  and  not  of  ideas,  it  should  be  yeyaraSed  by  a. 
comma  ;.  ar>,  "  lie  saw  a  large  h(*.%  or  Qulfy 

Rem.  5 — When  j)/i.?'f«^s  are  «o»ns^e5ed.  bj  CDnjuncJians,,  thsy  arc- 
?eguluted  by  the  same  rales  as  single  words. 

RULE  IX— When  any  tense  of  the  verb  "  To  Be"  i& 
folloYv'ed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  which,  by  trans- 
position, may  be  m-ade  the  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  109 

is  generally  separated  from  the  latter  verb  by  a  comma ; 
as,  "The  best  preservative  of  health  is,  to  he  temperate." 

Rem.  1— The  infinitive  mode  absolute  with  words  depending  on  it, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  a  comma ;  as, 
*'  To  correct  the  sjnrit  of  discontent,  let  us  consider  how  little  we 
deserve." 

Rem.  2— When  the  infinitive  mode  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  it  is  generally  separated  from  it  by  a  com- 
ma; as,  '' To  die  for  one's  country^  is  glorious." 

Rem.  3— When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  is  separated  from  the 
word  on  which  it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  generally  placed 
before  it;  as, 

0,  for  a  glance  of  heavenly  day. 
To  TAKE  this  stubborn  heart  away." 

RULE  X — Modifying  words  and  phrases,  as,  however, 
nay,  hence,  therefore,  besides,  in  short,  finally,  formerly, 
etc.,  are  usually  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "It  is,  Jiowever, 
the  task  of  criticism  to  establish  principles." 

RULE  XI — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 
■whether  successive  or  involved,  should  be  separated  by 
commas ;  as,  "  The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole 
the  young  ones."  "  Providence  has,  I  think,  displayed  a 
tenderness  for  mankind." 

Rkm.  1— Those  modifying  clauses  which  are  joined  on  by  such 
subordinate  connectives  as  do  not  limit  the  verb  in  the  preceding 
clause,  should  be  punctuated  as  co-ordinate  clauses;  as,  "  The  hus- 
bandman is  happy,  if  he  Tv/tows  his  advantages.''^ 

Rem.  2— In  comparative  sentences  whose  members  are  short,  the 
comma  should  not  be  used  ;  as,  "■  Wisdom  is  better  than  gokV 

RULE  XII — The  case  in  apposition  with  its  adjunct, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  com- 
mas; as,  "Paul,  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was 
eminent  for  his  Christian  zeal." 

Rem. — If  the  case  in  apposition  is  unaccompanied  by  any  modifying 
word  or  phrase,  no  comma  should  be  used;  as,  '' The  patriarch  Joseph 
was  an  ilUistrious  example  of  true  piety." 


110  York's  illustrative  and 


THE  SEMICOLON, 

The  semicolon  ( ; )  requires  a  longer  pause  than  the  com- 
ma ;  the  proportion  being  as  one  to  two. 

The  semicolon  is  placed  between  the  clauses  of  a  period 
which  are  less  closely  connected  than  such  as  are  separa- 
ted by  commas. 

RULE  I — When  the  first  division  completes  a  proposi- 
tion, so  as  to  have  no  dependence  on  what  follows,  but  the 
following  clause  has  a  dependence  on  the  preceding,  the 
two  parts  are  separated  by  a  semicolon;  as,  "The  one  has 
all  that  perfection  requires,  and  more,  but  the  excess  may 
be  easily  retrenched  ;  the  other  wants  the  qualities  requisite 
to  excellence." 

Rem. — In  general,  then,  the  semicolon  separates  the  divisions  of  a 
sentence,  when  the  latter  division  has  a  dependence  on  the  former, 
whether  the  former  has  a  dependence  on  the  latter  or  not. 

RULE  II — When  several  members  of  a  sentence  have 
a  dependence  on  each  other,  by  means  of  a  substitute  tor 
the  same  principal  word,  and  the  clauses,  in  other  respects, 
constitute  direct  propositions,  the  semicolon  may  be  used  ; 
as,  "Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house;  she  hath  hewn  out 
her  seven  pillars ;  she  hath  killed  her  beasts ;  she  hath 
mingled  her  wine ;  she  hath  also  furnished  her  table." — Pro- 
verbs ix. 

RULE  III — A  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate 
premises  and  conclusions ;  as,  ^'Man  is  mortal ;  therefore 
he  must  die."  "Caesar  deserved  death; /or  he  was  a 
tyrant." 

RULE  IV — The  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate 
an  example,  introduced  to  illustrate  a  rule  or  proposition ; 
as,  The  subject  of  a  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ; 
as,  Washington  loas  President, '' 

Rem. — The  above,  with  some  variation,  are  the  rules  generally  given 
by  punctuists,  to  direct  the  learner  to  a  proper  use  of  the  semicolon. 

It  will  be  seen,  however,  that  the  principles,  on  which  the  proper 
application  ot  this  point  is  based,  are  found  in  the  perception  of  a  re- 
semhlance  and  contrast. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  Ill 

When  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-member,  of  which 
something  similar  is  predicated,  to  that  of  the  super-member,  the  idea 
is  that  of  resemblance ;  and  the  semicolon  should  be  used  to  separate 
the  members  ;  as,  '*  As  wood  is  to  fire ;  so  is  a  contentious  man  to  the 
production  of  strife." 

But,  when  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-member,  and  of 
which  something  antithetical  is  affirmed,  to  what  is  affirmed  in  the 
super-member,  the  idea  is  that  of  antithesis  or  contrast;  consequently 
the  members  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  The  wise  shall 
inherit  glory ;  hut  shame  shall  be  the  promotion  of/o(?fe."  Hence 
the  following  rule  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct  the  learner 
to  a  proper  application  of  this  gnomon,  or  point. 

RULE  V — When  resemblance  or  contrast  is  affirmed  in 
the  sub-member,  the  members  should  be  separated  by  a 
semicolon ;  as,  "  Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and 
friendship  ;  hut  hell  of  fierceness  and  animosity."  *'The 
zvicked  flee  when  no  man  pursueth ;  hut  the  righteous  arc 
as  bold  as  a  lion."  ''  JEliza  is  beautiful ;  and  so  is  Mary.'' 


THE  COLON. 

The  time  generally  given  to  the  colon  ( : )  is  double  that 
of  the  semicolon. 

RULE  I — When  the  things  affirmed  in  the  latter,  or 
sub-member,  are  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  things 
mentioned  in  the  former,  or  super-member,  the  colon  may 
be  used  to  separate  the  members;  as,  " ilfa7i  is  a  great 
sinner  :  Christ  is  a  great  Saviour,'' 

RULE  II — When  that  which  is  affirmed  in  the  latter, 
or  sub-member,  is  illustrative  or  confirmatory  of  what  is 
affirmed  in  the  former,  or  super  member,  the  colon  may  be 
used;  as,  "Man  cannot  arrive  at  a  point  here,  which  he 
cannot  pass:  he  is  to  advance  in  the  next  ivorld.''  "Mr. 
Gray  was  followed  by  Mr.  Erskine  who  spake  thus :  1 
rise  to  second  the  motion  of  my  honorable  friend,'* 

Rem.  1—r When  the  colon' is  used,  the  connective  is  generally 
omitted. 

Rem.  2 — Our  best  writers  have  frequently  confounded  the  col^h 


112  York's  illustrative  and 

and  semicolon.  The  truth  is,  the  colon  is  nearly  obsolete;  conse- 
quently but  sparingly  used  by  the  best  writers  of  the  present  age.— 
{See  Dr.   WeUter's  JmjrroTed  Grammar^  Page  154.) 

Rem.— The  practice  of  writers  is  far  from  being  uniform,  with  re- 
gard to  the  pouit  to  be  used  in  introducing  direct  quotations.  Some 
use  the  colon,  some  the  semicolon,  and  others,  the  comma. 


THE  FERIOD. 

The  period,  or  full  point  ( . ),  marks  a  completion  of  ihc 
sense,  a  cadence  of  the  voice,  and  the  longest  pause  used 
between  sentences.  It  closes  a  discourse,  also,  or  marks 
the  completion  of  a  subject  or  section. 

Rem. — And  it  is  also  used  in  abreviating  words,  and  is  placed  after 
initials  when  used  alone;  as,  "  Eei\  Prest.  Craven,  D.  i>."  "  C.  F. 
Deems,  I).  i>."     ''Hon.  David  L.  Swain,  L.L.  i>." 

THE  DASH  AND  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Dash  ( — )  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sen- 
tence is  left  unfinished ;  as,  "  If  thou  art  \iQ—hut  0,  how 
fallen!" 

The  Dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  Paren- 
thesis ;  as,  ''  The  Colonists — such  is  human  nature — de- 
sired to  burn  the  town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched/ ' 

The  Parenthesis  ()  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but,  in  some  way,  ex- 
planatory of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence;  as,  "Consider 
(and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  in  your  hearts)  the 
fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 


INTERROGATION  POINT, 

The  Interrogation  point  (?)  is  used  when  a  question  is 
asked ;  as,  Do  brutes  reason  ? 

Rem.— When  two  interrogative  members  are  closely  connected,  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  113 

comma  is  generally   used  after  the  first,  and  the  interrogation  point 
at  the  close  of  the  last  member ;  as, 

"When  fiball  I  reach  that  happy  jjZace, 
And  be  foreTer  bleat  ?" 


EXCLAMATION   POINT. 

The  exclamation  point  (!)  is  used  after  an  exclamative 
sentence;  as,  "How  vain  are  all  things  here  below!"  It 
is  also  used  after  phrases  expressive  of  emotion;  as,  "  0, 
happiness!  our  being's  end  and  aim  !" 


BRACKETS. 


Brackets  ( ]  )  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  intro- 
duced for  explanation  ;  as,  *'  He  [the  Professor]  explained 
it." 


QUOTATION  MARKS. 

Quotation  Marks  ("  ")  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author  ;  as,  He  said,  "  / 
relinquish  my  claim,'" 


THE  CARET. 

The  Caret  (  a  )  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some  let* 

lies 
ter,  word,  or  phrase,  has  been  omitted ;  as,  "The  book  upon. 

A 


THE  HYPHEN. 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com- 
pound word  ;  as,  Book-binder.     When  placed  at  the  end 


114  York's  illustrative  axd 

of  a  line,  it  slio-svs  that  a  word  is  divided,  tlie  remaining  part 
beinff  carried  to  next  line. 


THE  ELLIPSIS. 

The  Ellipsis   ( )  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 

certain  letters  or  words;  as,  Y k,  K g. 


THE  INDEX. 

The  Index  (W^^)  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 


ACCENT. 

The  accent  is  a  character  used  to  point  out  the  accented 
sylable  of  a  word,  whether  long  or  short.  Onr  ancestors 
borrowed  three  of  these  characters  from  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, viz :  the  acute  (/),  the  grave  (\),  and  the  circum^ 
flex  (a).  The  acute  points  out  the  rise  of  voice  ;  the  grave, 
the  fall ;  and  the  circumflex  unites  both  of  these  in  one, 
and  makes  an  undulation  of  the  voice.  The  breve  (^  is 
placed  over  an  unaccented  syllable  in  poetry  ;  and  the 
dash  ( — )  is  used  over  the  accented  syllables  ;  as, 


"  With  rav 
The  mon 


i^lied  ears, 
arch  hears.' 


THE  APOSTROPHE. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive  case, 
and  also  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  in  the  syncopa- 
tion of  words;  as,  "This  is  JoZ/yi's  book."  ^'-E'en  now 
where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend." 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  115 


THE  ASTERISK, 


Three  asterisks  (***)  show  that  some  indelicate  expres- 
sion has  been  omitted,  or  that  there  is  some  defect  in  the 
manuscript. 

The  asterisk  (*),  the  obelisk  (f),  the  double-dagger  (J), 
and  parallels  (||),  are  only  used  as  foot  notes,  or  references 
to  the  margin. 


LESSON  LI. 

OF   CAPITALS. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capital  letters ; 

1  The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence. 

2  Proper  names  and  titles  of  office  or  honor ;  as, 
"  George  Washington^  General  Lee,  Judge  Story,  Sir 
Walter  Scott,  the  Ohio,  Main  Street:' 

3  The  name  of  an  object  personified,  may  be  used  as  a 
proper  name,  and  should  then  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 
**  Gentle  Spring.'' 

4  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names;  as,  '^Ameri- 
cans English,  Romans' 

5  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  "  God,  the 
Almighty  J"     "  The  Supreme  Being." 

6  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

7  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quota- 
tion is  a  complete  sentence  of  itself;  as,  "  Christ  says, 
^My  yoke  is  easy.'  " 

8  Every  noun  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books  ; 
ts,  "  Pope's  Essay  on  Man," 

9  The  pronoun  1  and  interjectiorj  0  are  written  in  capi- 
tals. 

10  Any  word,  when  of  particular  importance,  may  be- 
gin with  a  capital. 


IIG  YORK'S  ILLUBTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  LII. 

OF  VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry  is  metrical  composition,  or  it  is  the  language  of 
passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagination. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of 
syllables,  according  to  particular  rules,  so  as  to  produce 
melody. 

Meter,  in  English,  consists  in  the  regular  return  of  the 
accent  at  regular  intervals.  Accent,  then,  is  essential  to 
verse ;  but  Rhyme  is  not,  since  there  may  be  a  regular 
return  of  accent,  or  syllables  similarly  affected,  without 
the  similarity  of  sound  which  produces  rhyme. 

Two  or  more  syllables,  grouped  together  by  accent, 
constitute  afootj  or  measure.  It  is  called  a  measure,  be- 
cause, by  its  aid,  the  voice  steps  along,  as  it  were,  through 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace.  When  two  syllables  are 
thus  grouped  together,  it  is  called  dissyllabic  measure  ;  as, 

<•'  With  rav  |  ished  ears, 

The  mon  |  arch  hears." 

But,  when  three  syllables  are  thus  grouped  together,  it 
is  trissyllahic  measure  ;  as, 

♦'  I  am  mon  |  arch  of  all  |  I  survey." 

Several  measures,  or  feet,  properly  arranged,  form  a 
line,  or  verse.     A  verse,  then,  is  a  certain  number  of  con 
nected  feet  forming  one  line.  ^  ^ 

A  Stanza  is  a  combination  0£  several  verses,  varying 
in  number,  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting 
a  regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song. 

When  the  first  and  third  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four 
Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  second  and  fourth  lines,  three 
feet  each,  it  is  Common  Meter. 

When  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  Ikies  of  o  ctar.za  con- 
tain three  Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  third  Ino  four,  it  is 
^%ort  Metre. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  117 

When  all  the  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four  Iambic  feet 
each,  the  metre  is  Long, 

Blank  verse  is  metrical  composition  without  rhyme  ;  as, 

"  Now  camo  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had,  in  her  sober  livery,  all  things  clad." 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  of  sound  between  the  last  sylla-* 
bles  of  different  lines,  as  in  the  following, 

"  How  do  thy  morcies  close  me  round, 

Forever  be  thy  name  adored  ! 
I  blush,  in  all  things,  to  abound ; 

The  servant  is  above  his  lord." 

SCANNING. 

Scanning  a  verse  is  dividing  it  into  its  component  feet, 
and  properly  placing  the  accent. 

All  the  feet  used  in  poetry  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds — 
four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three,  as  follows : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISSYLLABLE. 


An  Iambus 
A  Trochee 
A  Spondee 
A  Pyrrhic 


A  Dactyl 
An  Amphibrach 
A  Tribrach 
An  Anapaest 


The  Iambus,  Trochee,  Anapaest,  and  Dactyl,  may  be 
denominated  principal  feet,  as  pieces  of  poetry  are  chiefly, 
and  may  be  wholly,  formed  of  them.  The  others  may  be 
termed  secondary  feet,  because  their  object  is  to  diversify 
the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse. 

IAMBIC  VERSE. 

In  Iambic  verse,  the  second  syllable  of  every  foot  is  ac- 
cented, and  the  first  unaccented. 

1.  Iambic  of  one  foot,  or  Monometer  ; 

Fr5m  me, 
They  flee. 

2.  Iambic  of  tw&  feet,  or  Dimeter ; 

To  me  I  the  rose 
No  longer  glows- 


118 

3.  lamhic  of  three fi-ef.  or  Trimeferl 

In  pla  I  cos  far  |  or  near. 
Or  famous,  or  obscure. 

4.  lamlic  of  four  feet,  or  Tetrameter-, 

How  sleep  |  the  brave  |  who  sink  |  to  rest. 
With  all  their  country's  honors  blest. 

5.  lamhic  of  five  feet,  or  Pentameter  : 

On  rif  I  ted  rocks,  |  the  drag  |  on's  late  |  abodes, 
The  green  reed  trembles,  and  the  bulrush  nods. 

6.  lamhic  of  six  feet,  or  Hexameter  ; 

For  thou  I  art  but  |  of  dust ;  |  be  hum  |  ble  and  |  be  wise. 

Note. — The  Iambic  Pentameter  is  called  the  Heroic.  The  Iambic 
Hexameter  is  called  the  Alexandrine. 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  admitted  into  heroic 
rhyme,  and,  when  used  sparingly  and  with  judgment,  occa- 
sions an  agreeable  variety ; 

The  seas  |  shall  waste,  |  the  skies  |  in  smoke  |  decay, 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away  ; 
But  fixed  his  word,  his  saving  power  remains  ; 
Thy  realm  \  forev  |  er  lasts,  \  thy  oivn  \  3Iessi  \  ah  reigns^ 

7.  lamhic  of  seven  feet,  or  Ileptameter ', 

The  lof  I  ty  hill  |  the  hum  ]  ble   lawn  |  with  count  |  less 

beau  I  ties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade,  proclaim  thy  power 

divine. 

Each  line  is  commonly  divided  into  two  ;  thus, 

The  lofty  hill,  the  humhlc  la\yn, 

AVith  countless  beauties  shine  ; 
The  silent  grove,  the  solemn  shade, 

Proclaim  thy  power  divine. 

TROCHAIC   VERSE. 
1»   Trochaic  Monometer ; 

\  ,    Changing, 

Ransrinj 


•&-"&" 


\      \ 


119 

2.  Trochaic  Dimeter ; 

Fancy  |  viewing, 
Joys  ensuing. 

3.  Trochaic  Trimeter ; 

Go  where  |  glory  |  waits  thee,  | 
But  where  fame  elates  thee. 

4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter; 

Round  a  |  holy  |  calm  dlf  |  fusing, 
Love  of  peace,  and  lonely  musing. 

5.  Trochaic  Pentameter-, 

All  that  I  walk  on  |  foot  or  |  ride  in  |  chariots, 
All  tha,t  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6.  Trochaic  Hexametev ; 

On  a  I  mountain  |  stretched  be  |  neath  a  |  hoary  |  willow 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  viewed  the  rolling  billow. 

In  Trochaic  verse,  the  accent  is  placed  upon  the  odd 
syllable ;  in  Iambic  verse,  upon  the  even. 

The  Iambic  verse  admits  of  an  additional  short  sylla- 
ble;  ^ 

A  Chieftain  to  the  Highlands  bound. 
Cries  boat  |  man  do  |  not  tar  |  ry. 

The  Trochaic  admits  of  an  additional  long  syllable ; 

Where  the  |  Avood  is  |  waving  |  green  and  |  high^ 
Fawns  ard  I  Dryads  |  watch  the  |  starry  (  sky, 

ANAPiESTIC  VERSE. 

1.  Anapaestic  Monometer ; 

On  the  land, 
Now  I  stand; 
From  the  sea, 
Now  I'm  free. 

2.  Anapaestic  Dimeter : 

On  a  plain,  |  as  he  strode, 
By  the  hermit's  abode. 


120 

3.  Anapaestic  Trimeter ; 

Oh  ye  woods,  |  spread  your  branch  |  es  apace  ; 

To  your  inmost  receses  I  fly ; 
I  would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chase ; 

I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 

4.  Anapcestic  Tetrameter; 

At  the  close  j  of  the  day  |  when  the  ham  |  let  is  still ; 
And  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove. 

In  Anapaestic  verse,  the  accent  falls  on  every  third  syl- 
lable. The  first  foot  of  Anapaestic  verse  may  be  an  Iam- 
bus: 

And  mor  \  tals  the  sweets  |  of  forget  |  fulness  prove. 

DACTYLIC  VERSE. 

1.  Dactilic  Manometer ; 

Cheerfully, 
Tearfully. 

2.  Dactylic  Dimeter ; 

Free  from  anx  |  iety, 
Care  and  sat  |  iety. 

8.  Dactilic  Trimeter', 

Wearing  a  |  way  in  his  |  youthfulness. 
Loveliness,  beauty,  and  truthfulness. 

4.  Dactilic  Tetrameter ; 

Boys  will  an  ]  ticipate  |  lavish  and  |  dissipate, 
All  that  your  busy  pate  has  hoarded  with  care. 


EHK^T^. 


On 

page  6, 

t( 

(( 

12, 

(t 

" 

23, 

t; 

(( 

26, 

i( 

" 

31, 

ii 

{( 

39, 

ii 

i( 

43, 

(( 

a 

55, 

(( 

u 

73, 

7«. 

line  17,  read  Participle  for  particle. 

"      0,  read  two  or  rnore  for  one  or  7710?'^. 

"      3 — of  the  Exercises,  the  member  (in  Cand)  shoulp 

be  No.  1  instead  of  2. 
"      6,  read  twenty -six  for  thirty-six, 
"      2,  full  line  fiom  bottom,  read  collective  for  cellective. 
"     10,    "     "  read  Affirmation  for  aflBnnation. 
"      8,  omit  quotation  marks. 

last  line  except  foot  note,  the  Perfect  Participle 

should  be  blown. 
"      0,  read  mark  for  make. 
"      (5,  limits  should  be  limit 
'^  read  hence  for  as. 

■  ■•  -^ike  the  corrections  here  noted. 


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